Clinical and biochemical impact of vitamin B6 deficiency in primary sclerosing cholangitis before and after liver transplantation.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: We previously demonstrated that people with primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) had reduced gut microbial capacity to produce active vitamin B6 (pyridoxal 5'-phosphate [PLP]), which corresponded to lower circulating PLP levels and poor outcomes. Here, we define the extent and biochemical and clinical impact of vitamin B6 deficiency in people with PSC from several centers before and after liver transplantation (LT). METHODS: We used targeted liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry to measure B6 vitamers and B6-related metabolic changes in blood from geographically distinct cross-sectional cohorts totaling 373 people with PSC and 100 healthy controls to expand on our earlier findings. Furthermore, we included a longitudinal PSC cohort (n = 158) sampled prior to and serially after LT, and cohorts of people with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) without PSC (n = 51) or with primary biliary cholangitis (PBC) (n = 100), as disease controls. We used Cox regression to measure the added value of PLP to predict outcomes before and after LT. RESULTS: In different cohorts, 17-38% of people with PSC had PLP levels below the biochemical definition of a vitamin B6 deficiency. The deficiency was more pronounced in PSC than in IBD without PSC and PBC. Reduced PLP was associated with dysregulation of PLP-dependent pathways. The low B6 status largely persisted after LT. Low PLP independently predicted reduced LT-free survival in both non-transplanted people with PSC and in transplant recipients with recurrent disease. CONCLUSIONS: Low vitamin B6 status with associated metabolic dysregulation is a persistent feature of PSC. PLP was a strong prognostic biomarker for LT-free survival both in PSC and recurrent disease. Our findings suggest that vitamin B6 deficiency modifies the disease and provides a rationale for assessing B6 status and testing supplementation. IMPACT AND IMPLICATIONS: We previously found that people with PSC had reduced gut microbial potential to produce essential nutrients. Across several cohorts, we find that the majority of people with PSC are either vitamin B6 deficient or have a marginal deficiency, which remains prevalent even after liver transplantation. Low vitamin B6 levels strongly associate with reduced liver transplantation-free survival as well as deficits in biochemical pathways dependent on vitamin B6, suggesting that the deficiency has a clinical impact on the disease. The results provide a rationale for measuring vitamin B6 and to investigate whether vitamin B6 supplementation or modification of the gut microbial community can help improve outcomes for people with PSC.

Association between fibrosis markers and kidney function following peptide receptor radionuclide therapy in patients with neuroendocrine tumours.

Peptide receptor radionuclide therapy (PRRT) is a treatment for neuroendocrine tumours (NET). Renal impairment is a known side effect due to kidney fibrosis. We investigated the association between novel specific fibrosis markers and kidney function following PRRT. We included 38 patients who had all finished PRRT. In serum and urine, we analysed levels of three different fibrosis markers, PRO-C6 (type VI collagen formation), PRO-C3 (type III collagen formation) and C3M (type III collagen degradation). We determined kidney function by the 51Cr-EDTA plasma clearance. We used Wilcoxon rank sum test and Spearman's rank correlation to evaluate the association between the fibrosis markers and kidney function. We included 38 NET patients, 25 small-intestinal NET, 6 pancreatic NET, 2 pulmonary NET and 5 other types of NET. Median age was 69 years (IQR: 61-73). Median time from last PRRT to inclusion was 8 months (IQR: 3-20). We found significantly increased levels of serum PRO-C6 (p = .007) and urinary PRO-C6 (p = .033) and significantly decreased levels of urinary C3M (p = .035) in patients with impaired kidney function. Further, we observed a negative association between serum PRO-C6 and kidney function (rho = -0.33, p = .04) and a positive association between urinary C3M and kidney function (rho = 0.37, p = .02). We showed an association between the three fibrosis markers, serum PRO-C6, urinary PRO-C6 and urinary C3M and kidney function. These markers may help to improve the understanding of potential pathological tissue turnover and potentially improve monitoring of kidney function after PRRT in NET patients.

Improved prediction of mortality by combinations of inflammatory markers and standard clinical scores in patients with acute-on-chronic liver failure and acute decompensation.

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) is a sinister prognosis, and there is a need for accurate biomarkers and scoring systems to better characterize ACLF patients and predict prognosis. Systemic inflammation and renal failure are hallmarks in ACLF disease development and progression. We hypothesized that the combination of specific inflammatory markers in combination with clinical scores are better predictors of survival than the originally developed CLIF-C acute decompensation (AD) and CLIF-C ACLF scores. METHODS: We reevaluated all previously measured inflammatory markers in 522 patients from the CANONIC study, 342 without and 180 with ACLF. We used the Harrell's C-index to determine the best marker alone or in combination with the original scores and calculated new scores for prediction of mortality in the original CANONIC cohort. RESULTS: The best markers to predict 90-day mortality in patients without ACLF were the plasma macrophage activation markers soluble (s)CD163 and mannose receptor (sMR). Urinary neutrophil gelatinase associated lipocalin (UNGAL) and sCD163 were predictors for 28-day mortality in patients with ACLF. The newly developed CLIF-C AD + sMR score in patients without ACLF improved 90-day mortality prediction compared with the original CLIF-C AD score (C-index 0.82 [0.78-0.86] vs 0.74 [0.70-0.78, P = 0.004]). Further, the new CLIF-C ACLF + sCD163 + UNGAL improved the original CLIF-C ACLF score for 28-day mortality (0.85 [0.79-0.91] vs 0.75 [0.70-0.80], P = 0.039). CONCLUSIONS: The capability of these inflammatory markers to improve the original prognostic scores in cirrhosis patients without and with ACLF points to a key role of macrophage activation and inflammation in the development and progression of AD and ACLF.

Soluble CD163 and mannose receptor as markers of liver disease severity and prognosis in patients with primary biliary cholangitis.

INTRODUCTION: In primary biliary cholangitis (PBC), macrophages are involved in liver inflammation and fibrosis. The macrophage activation markers, soluble (s)CD163 and mannose receptor (sMR) are associated with liver disease severity and prognosis in other chronic liver diseases. We aimed to investigate sCD163 and sMR in patients with PBC. METHODS: We investigated PBC patients from the Italian PBC Study Group cohort and measured macrophage activation markers in serum at study enrolment. Patients were followed from enrolment until they experienced an event or were censored at their last visit. Events were defined as follows: (a) death from a liver-related cause; or (b) liver transplantation (LT) for PBC. We used Cox regression to investigate the association between sCD163 and sMR and long-term prognosis. RESULTS: In total, 202 PBC patients were included. Median age was 62 years (interquartile range (IQR), 53-71) at enrolment and 93% were women. Median sCD163 was 3.43 mg/L (IQR 2.48-5.35) and median sMR was 0.35 mg/L (IQR 0.28-0.45). There was an increase in sCD163 and sMR with increasing alkaline phosphatase. Two hundred and one patients were followed for a median of 8.6 years, and sCD163 and sMR predicted long-term risk of liver-related death or LT in univariate analyses, while sCD163 was also associated with outcome after confounder adjusting (adjusted HR = 1.14, 95% CI 1.00-1.30). Finally, we showed an increase in the prediction accuracy of poor outcome by adding sCD163 to the UK-PBC risk score. CONCLUSION: The macrophage activation markers sCD163 and sMR represent a non-invasive measure of PBC disease severity that provides useful long-term prognostic information.

Effect of proton pump inhibitors on the risk and prognosis of infections in patients with cirrhosis and ascites.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Many patients with cirrhosis use proton pump inhibitors. We aimed to determine their effects on the risk and prognosis of infections in patients with cirrhosis and ascites. METHODS: We used data from three 1-year trials of satavaptan treatment of ascites (N = 1198) to compare incidence and 90-day mortality of first-time infections between users and nonusers of proton pump inhibitors. With standard and marginal structural Cox models, we adjusted for differences in gender, age, cirrhosis aetiology, Model for End-stage Liver Disease score, serum albumin, lactulose use, severity of ascites, and history of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis or variceal bleeding. RESULTS: During the follow-up, 446 patients had an infection. At inclusion, 524 patients (44%) used proton pump inhibitors, and 645 (54%) used them at some point during the follow-up. Proton pump inhibitor use increased the rate of infections overall (adjusted hazard ratio = 1.43, 95% CI 1.18-1.74), and it also increased the rate of all specific types of infections except upper respiratory tract infections of presumably viral origin. The estimated cumulative risk of infections was 36.4% for proton pump inhibitor users vs 25.1% for nonusers at 6 months (relative risk = 1.45, 95% CI 1.22-1.73), and 45.2% vs 37.7% at 1 year (relative risk = 1.20, 95% 0.97-1.40). Use of proton pump inhibitors did not affect mortality during the 90 days following infection (adjusted hazard ratio = 0.83, 95% CI 0.53-1.31). CONCLUSIONS: Approximately half of patients with cirrhosis and ascites use proton pump inhibitors. This use increases their risk of bacterial infections, but does not affect their prognosis after an infection occurs.

Serum sodium as a risk factor for hepatic encephalopathy in patients with cirrhosis and ascites.

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Hyponatremia is associated with development of hepatic encephalopathy (HE), but the nature of the relationship between serum sodium and HE incidence is unknown. We examined the association between serum sodium, changes in serum sodium, and HE incidence using data from three randomized trials of satavaptan in cirrhosis patients with ascites. METHODS: During follow-up, patients were examined for HE, and serum sodium was measured regularly. We used fractional polynomials to estimate the nature of the association between current serum sodium and hazard rate of HE (e.g. with a linear, logarithmic, or exponential slope) and Cox regression to adjust for confounders. Moreover, we examined the association between serum sodium at inclusion and 30-day and 1-year cumulative risk of HE. Finally, we examined the effect of "change in serum sodium since inclusion" on the hazard rate of HE. RESULTS: We included 1116 patients of whom 302 developed HE. Median serum sodium at inclusion was 137 (interquartile range, 134-139). The lower the current serum sodium, the higher the rate of HE. Specifically, the confounder-adjusted HE hazard rate increased linearly by 8% (adjusted hazard ratio = 1.08, 95% confidence interval: 1.06-1.10) for every mmol/L decrease in serum sodium over the range of measured values. Current serum sodium had a stronger effect on the HE rate than the changes in serum sodium since inclusion. CONCLUSION: The hazard rate of HE development increased by 8% for every mmol/L decrease in serum sodium. Further, current serum sodium had a stronger effect on the HE rate than changes in serum sodium.

Nonselective ß-blockers do not affect mortality in cirrhosis patients with ascites: Post Hoc analysis of three randomized controlled trials with 1198 patients.

UNLABELLED: The safety of nonselective ß-blockers (NSBBs) in advanced cirrhosis has been questioned. We used data from three satavaptan trials to examine whether NSBBs increase mortality in cirrhosis patients with ascites. The trials were conducted in 2006-2008 and included 1198 cirrhosis patients with ascites followed for 1 year. We used Cox regression to compare all-cause mortality and cirrhosis-related mortality between patients who did and those who did not use NSBBs at randomization, controlling for age, gender, Model for End-Stage Liver Disease score, Child-Pugh score, serum sodium, previous variceal bleeding, cirrhosis etiology, and ascites severity. Moreover, we identified clinical events predicting that a patient would stop NSBB treatment. At randomization, the 559 NSBB users were more likely than the 629 nonusers to have a history of variceal bleeding but less likely to have Child-Pugh class C cirrhosis, hyponatremia, or refractory ascites. The 52-week cumulative all-cause mortality was similar in the NSBB user and nonuser groups (23.2% versus 25.3%, adjusted hazard ratio = 0.92, 95% confidence interval 0.72-1.18), and NSBBs also did not increase mortality in the subgroup of patients with refractory ascites (588 patients, adjusted hazard ratio = 1.02, 95% confidence interval 0.74-1.40) or in any other subgroup. Similarly, NSBBs did not increase cirrhosis-related mortality (adjusted hazard ratio = 1.00, 95% confidence interval 0.76-1.31). During follow-up, 29% of initial NSBB users stopped taking NSBBs, and the decision to stop NSBB treatment marked a sharp rise in mortality and coincided with hospitalization, variceal bleeding, bacterial infection, and/or development of hepatorenal syndrome. CONCLUSION: This large and detailed data set on worldwide nonprotocol use of NSBBs in cirrhosis patients with ascites shows that NSBBs did not increase mortality; the decision to stop NSBB treatment in relation to stressful events may have added to the safety. (Hepatology 2016;63:1968-1976).

Men with biopsy-confirmed hepatocellular adenoma have a high risk of progression to hepatocellular carcinoma: A nationwide population-based study.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Hepatocellular adenoma is a benign liver tumour that may transform to hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). We used data from Danish nationwide healthcare registries to investigate the incidence and prognosis of hepatocellular adenoma. METHODS: We included all patients with a hospital discharge diagnosis for benign liver tumour (ICD-10: D13.4) in 1997-2012 and a liver biopsy confirming the hepatocellular adenoma diagnosis. Follow-up began 1 year after adenoma diagnosis, to minimise the possibility that the tumour was a misdiagnosed HCC. All patients were age- and gender-matched with 50 random controls from the Danish population. We followed patients and controls with respect to HCC development, adenoma resection, and death without HCC (ie, death without having been diagnosed with HCC) through 2013. HCC diagnoses were identified in the Danish Cancer Registry. RESULTS: We included 67 patients with hepatocellular adenoma, and 58 (87%) were women. The overall incidence rate of histologically verified hepatocellular adenoma in the Danish general population was 0.07 (95% CI: 0.06-0.09) per 100 000 population per year. Fifteen patients had their adenoma resected before follow-up began, leaving 52 patients for follow-up. Men with biopsy-confirmed hepatocellular adenoma had a 10-year cumulative HCC risk as high as 60.0% (95% CI: 15.3%-87.0%). All men who developed HCC were older than 50 years at adenoma diagnosis. By contrast, none of the 44 women in the follow-up analysis developed HCC. CONCLUSION: Histologically verified hepatocellular adenoma is rare in Denmark. It is a minor concern for women, but men have a very high risk of progression to HCC.

High-dose oral thiamine versus placebo for chronic fatigue in patients with primary biliary cholangitis: A crossover randomized clinical trial.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Fatigue has high negative impact on many patients with primary biliary cholangitis (PBC) and treatment options are limited. Recently we showed favorable effects of four weeks of high-dose thiamine treatment on fatigue in patients with inflammatory bowel disease. We aimed to investigate the effect and safety of high-dose (600-1800 mg daily) oral thiamine treatment on chronic fatigue in patients with PBC. METHODS: Randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled crossover trial including patients with severe PBC-related fatigue. Participants were allocated 1:1 to either group 1) 4 weeks of high-dose thiamine, 4 weeks of washout, and 4 weeks of placebo; or group 2) 4 weeks of placebo, washout, and high-dose thiamine, respectively. Fatigue severity was quantified using the fatigue subscale of the PBC-40 questionnaire. The primary outcome was a fatigue reduction of ≥ 5 points after 4 weeks of high-dose thiamine treatment. RESULTS: We enrolled 36 patients; 34 completed the study. The overall mean reduction in fatigue was 5.0 points (95% CI: 2.5 to 7.5; p < 0.001) for the combined group 1 and group 2. Crossover analysis showed a mean increase in fatigue of 0.3 points (95% CI: -4.2 to 3.8) after high-dose thiamine treatment compared to a 1.4 points (95% CI: 6.2 to -3.4) mean reduction after placebo (p = 0.55). Only mild and transient adverse events were recorded. CONCLUSION: Four weeks of high-dose oral thiamine treatment in patients with PBC was well tolerated and safe. However, high-dose thiamine was not superior to placebo in reducing PBC-related fatigue. TRIAL REGISTRATION: The trial was registered in the ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT04893993) and EudraCT (2020-004935-26).

The association between soluble CD163, disease severity, and ursodiol treatment in patients with primary biliary cholangitis.

INTRODUCTION: The macrophage activation marker soluble (s)CD163 is associated with disease severity and prognosis in patients with primary biliary cholangitis (PBC). Ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) treatment attenuates fibrosis progression in PBC patients, but its effect on macrophage activation is unclear. We examined the effect of UDCA on macrophage activation, as determined by sCD163 levels. METHODS: We included 2 cohorts of PBC patients; 1 cohort with prevalent PBC patients, and 1 cohort of incident PBC patients before start of UDCA treatment and with follow-up after 4 weeks and 6 months. We measured sCD163 and liver stiffness in both cohorts. Further, we measured sCD163 and TNF-α shedding in vitro in monocyte-derived macrophages after UDCA and lipopolysaccharide incubation. RESULTS: We included 100 patients with prevalent PBC [93% women, median age 63 y (interquartile range: 51-70)] and 47 patients with incident PBC [77% women, median age 60 y (49-67)]. Prevalent PBC patients had a lower median sCD163 of 3.54 mg/L (2.77-4.72) than incident PBC patients with a median sCD163 of 4.33 mg/L (2.83-5.99) at inclusion. Patients with an incomplete response to UDCA and patients with cirrhosis had higher sCD163 than responders to UDCA and noncirrhosis patients. After 4 weeks and 6 months of UDCA treatment median sCD163 decreased by 4.6% and 9.0%, respectively. In in vitro experiments, UDCA attenuated shedding of TNF-α, but not sCD163, from monocyte-derived macrophages. CONCLUSION: In PBC patients, sCD163 levels correlated with liver disease severity and treatment response to UDCA. Further, after 6 months of UDCA treatment, we observed a decrease in sCD163, which may be related to the treatment.

Highly Increased Levels of Inter-α-inhibitor Heavy Chain 4 (ITIH4) in Autoimmune Cholestatic Liver Diseases.

Background and Aims: There is an unmet need for new biomarkers to improve diagnostics and prognostics in primary biliary cholangitis (PBC) and primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC). Inter-α-inhibitor heavy chain 4 (ITIH4) is an abundant, liver-produced protein, and its synthesis may be altered in liver diseases. We investigated whether ITIH4 plasma concentrations were affected in PBC and PSC patients. Methods: We developed an immunoassay specific for ITIH4 and determined ITIH4 plasma concentrations in 66 PBC, 126 PSC, 92 autoimmune hepatitis (AIH), 67 chronic hepatitis C (CHC), 33 alcoholic hepatitis (AH) patients and 138 healthy controls (HCs). Hepatic ITIH4 expression was investigated by immunohistochemistry in PBC. Results: The mean plasma concentration of ITIH4 was almost doubled in PBC [409 µg/mL (95% CI: 388-431)] and 35% higher in PSC [308 µg/mL, (95% CI: 296-319)] compared with HCs [226 µg/mL (95% CI: 221-231); p<0.001]. In PBC patients, ITIH4 correlated with IgM (rho=0.49, p<0.001). Responders to ursodeoxycholic acid treatment (UDCA) had lower levels of ITIH4 than incomplete responders [395 µg/mL (95% CI: 364-425)] vs. 460 µg/mL (95% CI: 421-498); p=0.02]. Four weeks of UDCA treatment had no effect (p=0.19). Increased ITIH4 immunohistochemical staining was seen in a liver biopsy from a PBC patient. ITIH4 levels in AIH [224 µg/mL (95% CI: 208-241)] and HCs were similar (p=0.8). ITIH4 levels were lower in AH [199 µg/mL (95% CI: 175-223)] and CHC [202 µg/mL (192-212)] patients than in HCs (p<0.05). Conclusions: The plasma concentration of ITIH4 was highly elevated in patients with PBC and PSC, suggesting that ITIH4 should be further investigated as a biomarker in cholestatic liver disease.

Circulating Macrophage Activation Markers Predict Transplant-Free Survival in Patients With Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis.

INTRODUCTION: Primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) is a progressive liver disease characterized by bile duct inflammation and fibrosis. The role of macrophages in PSC development and progression is less studied. Macrophage activation markers soluble (s)CD163 and mannose receptor (sMR) are associated with disease severity and outcome in other liver diseases, but not previously investigated in PSC. We evaluated sCD163 and sMR regarding disease severity and prognosis in patients with PSC. METHODS: We investigated 2 independent PSC cohorts from Oslo (n = 138) and Helsinki (n = 159) and analyzed blood sCD163 and sMR levels. The Mayo score, Enhanced Liver Fibrosis Test, and Amsterdam-Oxford model were assessed for comparison. RESULTS: Median (interquartile range) sCD163 was 3.32 (2.27-5.60) and 1.96 (1.47-2.70) mg/L in the Oslo and Helsinki cohorts, respectively, reflecting differences in disease severity between cohorts. Median sMR was similar in both cohorts, 0.28 (0.22-0.44) and 0.28 mg/L (0.20-0.36), respectively. In both cohorts, sCD163 and sMR levels raised with increasing disease severity (liver enzymes, Mayo score, and enhanced liver fibrosis test). Patients with high baseline levels of sCD163 had shorter transplant-free survival than patients with low baseline levels. Furthermore, sCD163 was associated with transplant-free survival in univariate cox-regression analyses. Both sCD163 and sMR performed better in the Oslo cohort of more severely diseased patients than those in the Helsinki cohort of more mildly diseased patients. DISCUSSION: Macrophage activation markers are elevated according to disease severity suggesting an important role of macrophages in PSC. Furthermore, sCD163 was identified as a prognostic marker and predictor of transplant-free survival in PSC (see Visual Abstract, Supplementary Digital Content 4, http://links.lww.com/CTG/A516).

Diabetes does not increase infection risk or mortality following an infection in patients with cirrhosis and ascites.

Both cirrhosis and diabetes are established risk factors for infections. However, it remains uncertain whether diabetes adds to the risk of infections in patients with cirrhosis who are already at high risk of infections, or increases the mortality following an infection. To answer these questions, we followed a cohort of trial participants with cirrhosis and ascites for 1 year to compare the incidence of infections and post-infection mortality between those with or without diabetes. METHODS: We used Cox regression to estimate the hazard ratio (HR) of any infection, adjusting for confounding by patient age, gender, MELD score, albumin, use of proton pump inhibitors and lactulose, cirrhosis aetiology, and severity of ascites. Further, we analysed the mortality after infection. RESULTS: Among 1,198 patients with cirrhosis and ascites, diabetics (n = 289, 24%) were more likely than non-diabetics (n = 909, 76%) to be old and male, to have low platelets, and to use lactulose. At inclusion, similar proportions of diabetic and non-diabetic patients were taking a quinolone antibiotic (13% vs. 12%) and they had similar median MELD scores (14 vs. 15). During the follow-up, 446 patients had an infection. Diabetes did not increase the HR of infections (adjusted HR 1.08; 95% CI 0.87-1.35). Further, diabetes did not increase the mortality following an infection (adjusted HR 0.93; 95% CI 0.64-1.35). CONCLUSIONS: In patients with cirrhosis and ascites, diabetes did not increase infection risk or mortality after infection. The immune incompetence of each disease did not appear to be additive. In clinical terms, this means that particular attention to infections is not indicated in patients with cirrhosis and diabetes. LAY SUMMARY: Cirrhosis and diabetes are chronic diseases that weaken the immune system and increase the risk of infections, but it is unknown whether their combined effects exceed the effect of cirrhosis alone. We showed that the risk of infections was the same in patients with cirrhosis, ascites and diabetes as in patients with cirrhosis and ascites alone. Thus, their combined effects do not exceed the effect of cirrhosis alone.

Support of precision medicine through risk-stratification in autoimmune liver diseases - histology, scoring systems, and non-invasive markers.

Autoimmune liver diseases (AILDs) are complex conditions, which arise from the interaction between a genetic susceptibility and unknown environmental triggers. They represent a relevant cause of liver failure and liver transplantation worldwide. As a testimony of our progress in understanding the biology of AILDs and the disease progression is the overall median survival which has increased over the last decade. However, there are still major challenges such as the lack of therapies and surveillance strategies in primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC), the management and treatment of non-responders to first-line therapies in primary biliary cholangitis (PBC) and the need for tailoring immunosuppressive drugs in autoimmune hepatitis (AIH). The different disease course and treatment response in patients with AILDs might be related to a heterogeneous genetic background between individuals which translates in a heterogeneous clinical phenotype. Thus, it becomes essential to personalise management and treatment based on specific risk profiles, e.g. low-risk and high-risk, based on genetic and molecular signatures. It is now possible, thanks to the development of large-scale AILDs patient cohorts, that such diseases can be analysed using various high-throughput methods like gene expression profiling, next generation sequencing and other omics technologies to identify unique fingerprints based on which a personalised or tailor-made management and therapy can be developed. The final aim being to facilitate treatment decision-making that balances patient-specific risks and preferences. This is critical especially now with the current and forthcoming availability of more efficacious medications. To reach this point we need specific interventions such as creating bigger biobanks, sequencing more genomes and linking biological information to health-related data. We have already identified subsets of patients with different risk profiles among patients with PBC, PSC and AIH by using clinical tools such as liver histology, laboratory investigation and non-invasive methods. In this manuscript, we review the clinical features and investigations that already enable us to individualize the care of PBC patients and that might support the development of precision medicine (PM) in AILDs.

[New name and new treatments for primary biliary cholangitits].

The name of chronic liver disease: primary biliary cirrhosis, has been changed to: primary biliary cholangitis, primarily because of the stigma associated with the word "cirrhosis", as only a minority of the patients develop cirrhosis. In this review we present data on epidemiology and discuss the current treatments with focus on ursodeoxycholic acid and the newly described effects of the farnesoid receptor agonist obeticholic acid.