In Situ High-Temperature Raman Spectroscopy of UCl3: A Combined Experimental and Theoretical Study.

Uranium trichloride (UCl3) has received growing interest for its use in uranium-fueled molten salt reactors and in the pyrochemical processing of used fuel. In this paper, we report for the first time the experimentally determined Raman spectra of UCl3, at both ambient condition and in situ high temperatures up to 871 K. The frequencies of five of the Raman-active vibrational modes (vi) of UCl3 exhibit a negative temperature derivative ((∂νi/∂T)P) with increasing temperature. This red-shift behavior is likely due to the elongation of U-Cl bonds. The average isobaric mode Grüneisen parameter (γiP = 0.91 ± 0.02) of UCl3 was determined through use of the coefficient of thermal expansion published in Vogel et al. (2021) and the (∂νi/∂T)P values determined in this study. These results are in general agreement with those calculated here by density functional theory (DFT+U). Finally, a comparison of the ambient band positions of UCl3 to those of isostructural lanthanide (La-Eu) and actinide chlorides (Am-Cf) has been made.

Hydrous mineral dehydration around heat-generating nuclear waste in bedded salt formations.

Heat-generating nuclear waste disposal in bedded salt during the first two years after waste emplacement is explored using numerical simulations tied to experiments of hydrous mineral dehydration. Heating impure salt samples to temperatures of 265 °C can release over 20% by mass of hydrous minerals as water. Three steps in a series of dehydration reactions are measured (65, 110, and 265 °C), and water loss associated with each step is averaged from experimental data into a water source model. Simulations using this dehydration model are used to predict temperature, moisture, and porosity after heating by 750-W waste canisters, assuming hydrous mineral mass fractions from 0 to 10%. The formation of a three-phase heat pipe (with counter-circulation of vapor and brine) occurs as water vapor is driven away from the heat source, condenses, and flows back toward the heat source, leading to changes in porosity, permeability, temperature, saturation, and thermal conductivity of the backfill salt surrounding the waste canisters. Heat pipe formation depends on temperature, moisture availability, and mobility. In certain cases, dehydration of hydrous minerals provides sufficient extra moisture to push the system into a sustained heat pipe, where simulations neglecting this process do not.

Multiscale Speciation of U and Pu at Chernobyl, Hanford, Los Alamos, McGuire AFB, Mayak, and Rocky Flats.

The speciation of U and Pu in soil and concrete from Rocky Flats and in particles from soils from Chernobyl, Hanford, Los Alamos, and McGuire Air Force Base and bottom sediments from Mayak was determined by a combination of X-ray absorption fine structure (XAFS) spectroscopy and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) element maps. These experiments identify four types of speciation that sometimes may and other times do not exhibit an association with the source terms and histories of these samples: relatively well ordered PuO2+x and UO2+x that had equilibrated with O2 and H2O under both ambient conditions and in fires or explosions; instances of small, isolated particles of U as UO2+x, U3O8, and U(VI) species coexisting in close proximity after decades in the environment; alteration phases of uranyl with other elements including ones that would not have come from soils; and mononuclear Pu-O species and novel PuO2+x-type compounds incorporating additional elements that may have occurred because the Pu was exposed to extreme chemical conditions such as acidic solutions released directly into soil or concrete. Our results therefore directly demonstrate instances of novel complexity in the Å and µm-scale chemical speciation and reactivity of U and Pu in their initial formation and after environmental exposure as well as occasions of unexpected behavior in the reaction pathways over short geological but significant sociological times. They also show that incorporating the actual disposal and site conditions and resultant novel materials such as those reported here may be necessary to develop the most accurate predictive models for Pu and U in the environment.

A new methodology for measuring the enthalpies of mixing and heat capacities of molten chloride salts using high temperature drop calorimetry.

Molten salt reactors (MSRs) are a promising alternative to conventional nuclear reactors as they may offer more efficient fuel utilization, lower waste generation, and improved safety. The state of knowledge of the properties of liquid salts is far from complete. In order to develop the MSR concept, it is essential to develop a fundamental understanding of the thermodynamic properties, including the heat capacities (Cp) and enthalpies of mixing (ΔHmix), of molten salts at MSR operating conditions. Historically, the Cp values of molten salts were determined by drop-calorimetry or differential scanning calorimetry, whereas their ΔHmix values were typically measured using specialized high temperature calorimeters. In this work, a new methodology for measuring both the Cp and the ΔHmix of molten chloride salts was developed. This novel method involves sealing a chloride salt sample in a nickel capsule and performing conventional transposed temperature drop calorimetry using a commercially available Setaram AlexSYS-800 Tian-Calvet twin microcalorimeter. This methodology may be applied to calorimetric measurements of more complex salt mixtures, especially mixtures containing actinides and fission products.

Dispersion stability and electrokinetic properties of intrinsic plutonium colloids: implications for subsurface transport.

Subsurface transport of plutonium (Pu) may be facilitated by the formation of intrinsic Pu colloids. While this colloid-facilitated transport is largely governed by the electrokinetic properties and dispersion stability (resistance to aggregation) of the colloids, reported experimental data is scarce. Here, we quantify the dependence of ζ-potential of intrinsic Pu(IV) colloids on pH and their aggregation rate on ionic strength. Results indicate an isoelectric point of pH 8.6 and a critical coagulation concentration of 0.1 M of 1:1 electrolyte at pH 11.4. The ζ-potential/pH dependence of the Pu(IV) colloids is similar to that of goethite and hematite colloids. Colloid interaction energy calculations using these values reveal an effective Hamaker constant of the intrinsic Pu(IV) colloids in water of 1.85 × 10(-19) J, corresponding to a relative permittivity of 6.21 and refractive index of 2.33, in agreement with first principles calculations. This relatively high Hamaker constant combined with the positive charge of Pu(IV) colloids under typical groundwater aquifer conditions led to two contradicting hypotheses: (a) the Pu(IV) colloids will exhibit significant aggregation and deposition, leading to a negligible subsurface transport or (b) the Pu(IV) colloids will associate with the relatively stable native groundwater colloids, leading to a considerable subsurface transport. Packed column transport experiments supported the second hypothesis.

Gas diffusion through variably-water-saturated zeolitic tuff: Implications for transport following a subsurface nuclear event.

Noble gas transport through geologic media has important applications in the characterization of underground nuclear explosions (UNEs). Without accurate transport models, it is nearly impossible to distinguish between xenon signatures originating from civilian nuclear facilities and UNEs. Understanding xenon transport time through the earth is a key parameter for interpreting measured xenon isotopic ratios. One of the most challenging aspects of modeling gas transport time is accounting for the effect of variable water saturation of geological media. In this study, we utilize bench-scale laboratory experiments to characterize the diffusion of krypton, xenon, and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) through intact zeolitic tuff under different saturations. We demonstrate that the water in rock cores with low partial saturation dramatically affects xenon transport time compared to that of krypton and SF6 by blocking sites in zeolitic tuff that preferentially adsorb xenon. This leads to breakthrough trends that are strongly influenced by the degree of the rock saturation. Xenon is especially susceptible to this phenomenon, a finding that is crucial to incorporate in subsurface gas transport models used for nuclear event identification. We also find that the breakthrough of SF6 diverges significantly from that of noble gases within our system. When developing field scale models, it is important to understand how the behavior of xenon deviates from chemical tracers used in the field, such as SF6 (Carrigan et al., 1996). These new insights demonstrate the critical need to consider the interplay between rock saturation and fission product sorption during transport modeling, and the importance of evaluating specific interactions between geomedia and gases of interest, which may differ from geomedia interactions with chemical tracers.

Uranium carbonate complexes demonstrate drastic decrease in stability at elevated temperatures.

Quantitative understanding of uranium transport by high temperature fluids is crucial for confident assessment of its migration in a number of natural and artificially induced contexts, such as hydrothermal uranium ore deposits and nuclear waste stored in geological repositories. An additional recent and atypical context would be the seawater inundated fuel of the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant. Given its wide applicability, understanding uranium transport will be useful regardless of whether nuclear power finds increased or decreased adoption in the future. The amount of uranium that can be carried by geofluids is enhanced by the formation of complexes with inorganic ligands. Carbonate has long been touted as a critical transporting ligand for uranium in both ore deposit and waste repository contexts. However, this paradigm has only been supported by experiments conducted at ambient conditions. We have experimentally evaluated the ability of carbonate-bearing fluids to dissolve (and therefore transport) uranium at high temperature, and discovered that in fact, at temperatures above 100 °C, carbonate becomes almost completely irrelevant as a transporting ligand. This demands a re-evaluation of a number of hydrothermal uranium transport models, as carbonate can no longer be considered key to the formation of uranium ore deposits or as an enabler of uranium transport from nuclear waste repositories at elevated temperatures.

Aging effects on Cesium-137 (137Cs) sorption and transport in association with clay colloids.

Migration of radionuclides via colloid-facilitated transport is an important component of nuclear repository performance models. 137Cs sorption to bentonite colloids follows multi-site behavior, with sorption to weak sites being a rapid process and sorption to strong sites having slow kinetics. Experiments in this study targeted desorption of 137Cs from strong sites on the colloids by placing the 137Cs-bearing colloids in contact with a strongly-sorbing zeolite material that competes with the colloids for 137Cs sorption. Batch and column experiments were conducted to examine the effects of aging (i.e., increased contact time between 137Cs and colloids) on colloid-facilitated transport of 137Cs through crushed analcime columns. A larger proportion of 137Cs-bearing colloids eluted through a series of columns when the colloids were aged for 1200 days prior to injection in comparison to unaged colloids. Aging the colloids increased the partitioning of 137Cs to the colloids by nearly 20% after 1200 h. Slow desorption (0.27 hr-1) from the strong sites resulted in an increase of the Cs fraction bound to the strong sites from 0.365 to 0.87 by the second column injection, resulting in increased colloid-facilitated transport of Cs through strongly-sorbing zeolites from 0 in the second unaged column to 10% in the second aged column.

Iodine effective diffusion coefficients through volcanic rock: Influence of iodine speciation and rock geochemistry.

Accurate prediction of the subsurface transport of iodine species is important for the assessment of long-term nuclear waste repository performance, as well as monitoring compliance with the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty, given that radioiodine decays into radioxenon. However, the transport of iodine through intact geologic media is not well understood, compromising our ability to assess risk associated with radioiodine migration. The current study's goal is to quantify the matrix diffusion of iodine species through saturated volcanic rock, with particular attention paid to the redox environment and potential speciation changes. Diffusion experiments were run for iodide through lithophysae-rich lava, lithophysae-poor lava, and welded tuff, whereas iodate diffusion was studied through welded tuff. Iodine transport was compared with a conservative tracer, HDO, and effective diffusion coefficients were calculated. Likely due to a combination of size and anion exclusion effects, iodine species diffused more slowly than the conservative tracer through all rock types tested. Furthermore, oxidation of iodide to iodate was observed in the lithophysae-poor lava, affecting transport. Results provide much needed data for subsurface transport models that predict radioiodine migration from underground sources, and indicate the pressing need for geochemical and redox interactions to be incorporated into these models.

Plutonium(V/VI) Reduction by the Metal-Reducing Bacteria Geobacter metallireducens GS-15 and Shewanella oneidensis MR-1.

We examined the ability of the metal-reducing bacteria Geobacter metallireducens GS-15 and Shewanella oneidensis MR-1 to reduce Pu(VI) and Pu(V). Cell suspensions of both bacteria reduced oxidized Pu [a mixture of Pu(VI) and Pu(V)] to Pu(IV). The rate of plutonium reduction was similar to the rate of U(VI) reduction obtained under similar conditions for each bacteria. The rates of Pu(VI) and U(VI) reduction by cell suspensions of S. oneidensis were slightly higher than the rates observed with G. metallireducens. The reduced form of Pu was characterized as aggregates of nanoparticulates of Pu(IV). Transmission electron microscopy images of the solids obtained from the cultures after the reduction of Pu(VI) and Pu(V) by S. oneidensis show that the Pu precipitates have a crystalline structure. The nanoparticulates of Pu(IV) were precipitated on the surface of or within the cell walls of the bacteria. The production of Pu(III) was not observed, which indicates that Pu(IV) was the stable form of reduced Pu under these experimental conditions. Experiments examining the ability of these bacteria to use Pu(VI) as a terminal electron acceptor for growth were inconclusive. A slight increase in cell density was observed for both G. metallireducens and S. oneidensis when Pu(VI) was provided as the sole electron acceptor; however, Pu(VI) concentrations decreased similarly in both the experimental and control cultures.

Design of a containment apparatus for synchrotron XAS measurements of radioactive fluid samples under high temperatures and pressures.

The simple working principles and versatility of the hydrothermal diamond-anvil cell (HDAC) make it highly useful for synchrotron x-ray studies of aqueous and fluid samples at high pressure-temperature (P-T) conditions. However, safety concerns need to be overcome in order to use the HDAC for synchrotron studies of aqueous radioactive samples at high temperatures and pressures. For accomplishment of such hydrothermal experiments of radioactive materials at synchrotron beamlines, the samples are required to be enclosed in a containment system employing three independent layers of airtight sealing at some synchrotron facilities while enabling access to the sample using several experimental probes, including incoming and outgoing x-rays. In this article, we report the design and implementation of a complete radiological safety enclosure system for an HDAC specialized for high P-T x-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) measurements of aqueous solutions containing the actinides at synchrotron beamlines. The enclosure system was successfully tested for XAS experiments using the HDAC with aqueous samples containing depleted uranium at temperatures ranging from 25 to 500 °C and pressures ranging from vapor pressure to 350 MPa.

Sample seal-and-drop device and methodology for high temperature oxide melt solution calorimetric measurements of PuO2.

Thermodynamic properties of refractory materials, such as standard enthalpy of formation, heat content, and enthalpy of reaction, can be measured by high temperature calorimetry. In such experiments, a small sample pellet is dropped from room temperature into a calorimeter operating at high temperature (often 700 °C) with or without a molten salt solvent present in an inert crucible in the calorimeter chamber. However, for hazardous (radioactive, toxic, etc.) and/or air-sensitive (hygroscopic, sensitive to oxygen, pyrophoric, etc.) samples, it is necessary to utilize a sealed device to encapsulate and isolate the samples, crucibles, and solvent under a controlled atmosphere in order to prevent the materials from reactions and/or protect the personnel from hazardous exposure during the calorimetric experiments. We have developed a sample seal-and-drop device (calorimetric dropper) that can be readily installed onto the dropping tube of a calorimeter such as the Setaram AlexSYS Calvet-type high temperature calorimeter to fulfill two functions: (i) load hazardous or air-sensitive samples in an air-tight, sealed container and (ii) drop the samples into the calorimeter chamber using an "off-then-on" mechanism. As a case study, we used the calorimetric dropper for measurements of the enthalpy of drop solution of PuO2 in molten sodium molybdate (3Na2O·4MoO3) solvent at 700 °C. The obtained enthalpy of -52.21 ± 3.68 kJ/mol is consistent with the energetic systematics of other actinide oxides (UO2, ThO2, and NpO2). This capability has thus laid the foundation for thermodynamic studies of other Pu-bearing phases in the future.

Draft Genome Sequence of a Chromium-Reducing Strain, Pseudomonas fluorescens S613, Isolated from a Chromium-Contaminated Aquifer in Los Alamos, New Mexico.

In this report, a chromium-reducing bacterium, Pseudomonas fluorescens strain S613, was isolated from a Cr(VI)-contaminated aquifer at Los Alamos, NM, and sequenced. The size of the draft genome sequence is approximately 6.7 Mb.

Biostimulation and microbial community profiling reveal insights on RDX transformation in groundwater.

Hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX) is a high explosive released to the environment as a result of weapons manufacturing and testing worldwide. At Los Alamos National Laboratory, the Technical Area (TA) 16 260 Outfall discharged high-explosives-bearing water from a high-explosives-machining facility to Cañon de Valle during 1951 through 1996. These discharges served as a primary source of high-explosives and inorganic-element contamination in the area. Data indicate that springs, surface water, alluvial groundwater, and perched-intermediate groundwater contain explosive compounds, including RDX (hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine); HMX (octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine); and TNT (2,4,6-trinitrotoluene). RDX has been detected in the regional aquifer in several wells, and a corrective measures evaluation is planned to identify remedial alternatives to protect the regional aquifer. Perched-intermediate groundwater at Technical Area 16 is present at depths from 650 ft to 1200 ft bgs. In this study, we examined the microbial diversity in a monitoring well completed in perched-intermediate groundwater contaminated by RDX, and examined the response of the microbial population to biostimulation under varying geochemical conditions. Results show that the groundwater microbiome was dominated by Actinobacteria and Proteobacteria. A total of 1,605 operational taxonomic units (OTUs) in 96 bacterial genera were identified. Rhodococcus was the most abundant genus (30.6%) and a total of 46 OTUs were annotated as Rhodococcus. One OTU comprising 25.2% of total sequences was closely related to a RDX -degrading strain R. erythropolis HS4. A less abundant OTU from the Pseudomonas family closely related to RDX-degrading strain P. putida II-B was also present. Biostimulation significantly enriched Proteobacteria but decreased/eliminated the population of Actinobacteria. Consistent with RDX degradation, the OTU closely related to the RDX-degrading P. putida strain II-B was specifically enriched in the RDX-degrading samples. Analysis of the accumulation of RDX-degradation products reveals that during active RDX degradation, there is a transient increase in the concentration of the degradation products MNX, DNX, TNX, and NDAB. The accumulation of these degradation products suggests that RDX is degraded via sequential reduction of the nitro functional groups followed by abiotic ring-cleavage. The results suggest that strict anaerobic conditions are needed to stimulate RDX degradation under the TA-16 site-specific conditions.

Fate and transport of hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX) and its degradation products in sedimentary and volcanic rocks, Los Alamos, New Mexico.

High-explosive compounds including hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX) were used extensively in weapons research and testing at Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL). Liquid effluents containing RDX were released to an outfall pond that flowed to Cañon de Valle at LANL's Technical Area 16 (TA-16), resulting in the contamination of the alluvial, intermediate and regional groundwater bodies. Monitoring of groundwater within Cañon de Valle has shown persistent RDX in the intermediate perched zone located between 225 and 311 m below ground surface. Monitoring data also show detectable levels of RDX putative anaerobic degradation products. Batch and column experiments were conducted to determine the extent of adsorption-desorption and transport of RDX and its degradation products (MNX, DNX, and TNX) in major rock types that are within the RDX plume. All experiments were performed in the dark using water obtained from a well located at the center of the plume, which is fairly oxic and has a neutral pH of 7.5. Retardation factors and partitioning coefficient (Kd) values for RDX were calculated from batch experiments. Additionally, retardation factors and Kd values for RDX and its degradation products were calibrated from column experiments using a one-dimensional transport model with equilibrium sorption (linear isotherm). Results from the column and batch experiments showed little to no sorption of RDX to the aquifer materials tested, with retardation factors ranging from 1.0 to 1.8 and Kd values varying from 0 to 0.70 L/kg. Results also showed no measurable differences between the transport properties of RDX and its degradation products.

Laboratory investigation of the role of desorption kinetics on americium transport associated with bentonite colloids.

Understanding the parameters that control colloid-mediated transport of radionuclides is important for the safe disposal of used nuclear fuel. We report an experimental and reactive transport modeling examination of americium transport in a groundwater-bentonite-fracture fill material system. A series of batch sorption and column transport experiments were conducted to determine the role of desorption kinetics from bentonite colloids in the transport of americium through fracture materials. We used fracture fill material from a shear zone in altered granodiorite collected from the Grimsel Test Site (GTS) in Switzerland and colloidal suspensions generated from FEBEX bentonite, a potential repository backfill material. The colloidal suspension (100 mg L(-1)) was prepared in synthetic groundwater that matched the natural water chemistry at GTS and was spiked with 5.5 × 10(-10) M (241)Am. Batch characterizations indicated that 97% of the americium in the stock suspension was adsorbed to the colloids. Breakthrough experiments conducted by injecting the americium colloidal suspension through three identical columns in series, each with mean residence times of 6 h, show that more than 95% of the bentonite colloids were transported through each of the columns, with modeled colloid filtration rates (k(f)) of 0.01-0.02 h(-1). Am recoveries in each column were 55-60%, and Am desorption rate constants from the colloids, determined from 1-D transport modeling, were 0.96, 0.98, and 0.91 h(-1) in the three columns, respectively. The consistency in Am recoveries and desorption rate constants in each column indicates that the Am was not associated with binding sites of widely-varying strengths on the colloids, as one binding site with fast kinetics represented the system accurately for all three sequential columns. Our data suggest that colloid-mediated transport of Am in a bentonite-fracture fill material system is unlikely to result in transport over long distance scales because of the ability of the fracture materials to rapidly strip Am from the bentonite colloids and the apparent lack of a strong binding site that would keep a fraction of the Am strongly-associated with the colloids.

Genome Sequence of a Chromium-Reducing Strain, Bacillus cereus S612.

We report here the genome sequence of an effective chromium-reducing bacterium, Bacillus cereus strain S612. The size of the draft genome sequence is approximately 5.4 Mb, with a G+C content of 35%, and it is predicted to contain 5,450 protein-coding genes.

Petrobactin is produced by both pathogenic and non-pathogenic isolates of the Bacillus cereus group of bacteria.

Petrobactin is the primary siderophore synthesized by Bacillus anthracis str Sterne and is required for virulence of this organism in a mouse model. The siderophore's biosynthetic machinery was recently defined and gene homologues of this operon exist in several other Bacillus strains known to be mammalian pathogens, but are absent in several known to be harmless such as B. subtilis and B. lichenformis. Thus, a common hypothesis regarding siderophore production in Bacillus species is that petrobactin production is exclusive to pathogenic isolates. In order to test this hypothesis, siderophores produced by 106 strains of an in-house library of the Bacillus cereus sensu lato group were isolated and identified using a MALDI-TOF-MS assay. Strains were selected from a previously defined phylogenetic tree of this group in order to include both known pathogens and innocuous strains. Petrobactin is produced by pathogenic strains and innocuous isolates alike, and thus is not itself indicative of virulence.

Complexation of Pu(IV) with the natural siderophore desferrioxamine B and the redox properties of Pu(IV)(siderophore) complexes.

The bioavailability and mobility of Pu species can be profoundly affected by siderophores and other oxygen-rich organic ligands. Pu(IV)(siderophore) complexes are generally soluble and may constitute with other soluble organo-Pu(IV) complexes the main fraction of soluble Pu(IV) in the environment. In order to understand the impact of siderophores on the behavior of Pu species, it is important to characterize the formation and redox behavior of Pu(siderophore) complexes. In this work, desferrioxamine B (DFO-B) was investigated for its capacity to bind Pu(IV) as a model siderophore and the properties of the complexes formed were characterized by optical spectroscopy measurements. In a 1:1 Pu(IV)/DFO-B ratio, the complexes Pu(IV)(H2DFO-B)4+, Pu(IV)(H1DFO-B)3+, Pu(IV)(DFO-B)2+, and Pu(IV)(DFO-B)(OH)+ form with corresponding thermodynamic stability constants log beta1,1,2 = 35.48, log beta1,1,1 = 34.87, log beta1,1,0 = 33.98, and log beta1,1,-1 = 27.33, respectively. In the presence of excess DFO-B, the complex Pu(IV)H2(DFO-B)22+ forms with the formation constant log beta2,1,2 = 62.30. The redox potential of the complex Pu(IV)H2(DFO-B)22+ was determined by cyclic voltammetry to be E1/2 = -0.509 V, and the redox potential of the complex Pu(IV)(DFO-B)2+ was estimated to be E1/2 = -0.269 V. The redox properties of Pu(IV)(DFO-B)2+ complexes indicate that Pu(III)(siderophore) complexes are more than 20 orders of magnitude less stable than their Pu(IV) analogues. This indicates that under reducing conditions, stable Pu(siderophore) complexes are unlikely to persist.