Ligand-Functionalized Poly(ethylene glycol) Particles for Tumor Targeting and Intracellular Uptake.

Drug carriers typically require both stealth and targeting properties to minimize nonspecific interactions with healthy cells and increase specific interaction with diseased cells. Herein, the assembly of targeted poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) particles functionalized with cyclic peptides containing Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD) (ligand) using a mesoporous silica templating method is reported. The influence of PEG molecular weight, ligand-to-PEG molecule ratio, and particle size on cancer cell targeting to balance stealth and targeting of the engineered PEG particles is investigated. RGD-functionalized PEG particles (PEG-RGD particles) efficiently target U-87 MG cancer cells under static and flow conditions in vitro, whereas PEG and cyclic peptides containing Arg-Asp-Gly (RDG)-functionalized PEG (PEG-RDG) particles display negligible interaction with the same cells. Increasing the ligand-to-PEG molecule ratio improves cell targeting. In addition, the targeted PEG-RGD particles improve cell uptake via receptor-mediated endocytosis, which is desirable for intracellular drug delivery. The PEG-RGD particles show improved tumor targeting (14% ID g-1) when compared with the PEG (3% ID g-1) and PEG-RDG (7% ID g-1) particles in vivo, although the PEG-RGD particles show comparatively higher spleen and liver accumulation. The targeted PEG particles represent a platform for developing particles aimed at balancing nonspecific and specific interactions in biological systems.

Innovation in Layer-by-Layer Assembly.

Methods for depositing thin films are important in generating functional materials for diverse applications in a wide variety of fields. Over the last half-century, the layer-by-layer assembly of nanoscale films has received intense and growing interest. This has been fueled by innovation in the available materials and assembly technologies, as well as the film-characterization techniques. In this Review, we explore, discuss, and detail innovation in layer-by-layer assembly in terms of past and present developments, and we highlight how these might guide future advances. A particular focus is on conventional and early developments that have only recently regained interest in the layer-by-layer assembly field. We then review unconventional assemblies and approaches that have been gaining popularity, which include inorganic/organic hybrid materials, cells and tissues, and the use of stereocomplexation, patterning, and dip-pen lithography, to name a few. A relatively recent development is the use of layer-by-layer assembly materials and techniques to assemble films in a single continuous step. We name this "quasi"-layer-by-layer assembly and discuss the impacts and innovations surrounding this approach. Finally, the application of characterization methods to monitor and evaluate layer-by-layer assembly is discussed, as innovation in this area is often overlooked but is essential for development of the field. While we intend for this Review to be easily accessible and act as a guide to researchers new to layer-by-layer assembly, we also believe it will provide insight to current researchers in the field and help guide future developments and innovation.

Immobilized Particle Imaging for Quantification of Nano- and Microparticles.

The quantification of nano- and microparticles is critical for diverse applications relying on the exact knowledge of the particle concentration. Although many techniques are available for counting particles, there are some limitations in regards to counting with low-scattering materials and facile counting in harsh organic solvents. Herein, we introduce an easy and rapid particle counting technique, termed "immobilized particle imaging" (IPI), to quantify fluorescent particles with different compositions (i.e., inorganic or organic), structures (i.e., solid, porous, or hollow), and sizes (50-1000 nm) dispersed in either aqueous or organic solutions. IPI is achieved by immobilizing particles of interest in a cell matrix-like scaffold (e.g., agarose) and imaging using standard microscopy techniques. Imaging a defined volume of the immobilized particles allows for the particle concentration to be calculated from the count numbers in a fixed volume. IPI provides a general and facile approach to quantify advanced nano- and microparticles, which may be helpful to researchers to obtain new insights for different applications (e.g., nanomedicine).

Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate alters the number of attachment sites between ezrin and actin filaments: a colloidal probe study.

Direct linkage between the plasma membrane and the actin cytoskeleton is controlled by the protein ezrin, a member of the ezrin-radixin-moesin protein family. To function as a membrane-cytoskeleton linker, ezrin needs to be activated in a process that involves binding of ezrin to phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) and phosphorylation of a conserved threonine residue. Here, we used colloidal probe microscopy to quantitatively analyze the interaction between ezrin and F-actin as a function of these activating factors. We show that the measured individual unbinding forces between ezrin and F-actin are independent of the activating parameters, in the range of approximately 50 piconewtons. However, the cumulative adhesion energy greatly increases in the presence of PIP2 demonstrating that a larger number of bonds between ezrin and F-actin has formed. In contrast, the phosphorylation state, represented by phosphor-mimetic mutants of ezrin, only plays a minor role in the activation process. These results are in line with in vivo experiments demonstrating that an increase in PIP2 concentration recruits more ezrin to the apical plasma membrane of polarized cells and significantly increases the membrane tension serving as a measure of the adhesion sites between the plasma membrane and the F-actin network.

Redox-Sensitive PEG-Polypeptide Nanoporous Particles for Survivin Silencing in Prostate Cancer Cells.

We report the engineering of intracellular redox-responsive nanoporous poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(l-lysine) particles (NPEG-PLLs). The obtained particles exhibit no toxicity while maintaining the capability to deliver a small interfering RNA sequence (siRNA) targeting the anti-apoptotic factor, survivin, in prostate cancer cells. The redox-mediated cleavage of the disulfide bonds stabilizing the NPEG-PLL-siRNA complex results in the release of bioactive siRNA into the cytosol of prostate cancer PC-3 cells, which, in turn, leads to the effective silencing (∼59 ± 8%) of the target gene. These findings, obtained under optimal conditions, indicate that NPEG-PLLs may protect the therapeutic nucleic acid in the extracellular and intracellular environments, thus preventing the occurrence of competitive interactions with serum and cytosolic proteins as well as degradation by RNase. The intracellular trafficking and final fate of the NPEG-PLLs were investigated by a combination of deconvolution microscopy, fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy, and super-resolution structured illumination microscopy. A significant impairment of cell survival was observed in cells concomitantly exposed to paclitaxel and siRNA-loaded NPEG-PLLs. Overall, our findings indicate that NPEG-PLLs represent a highly loaded depot for the delivery of therapeutic nucleic acids to cancer cells.

Solid supported membranes doped with PIP2: influence of ionic strength and pH on bilayer formation and membrane organization.

Phosphoinositides and in particular L-α-phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) are key lipids controlling many cellular events and serve as receptors for a large number of intracellular proteins. To quantitatively analyze protein-PIP2 interactions in vitro in a time-resolved manner, planar membranes on solid substrates are highly desirable. Here, we describe an optimized protocol to form PIP2 containing planar solid supported membranes on silicon surfaces by vesicle spreading. Supported lipid bilayers (SLBs) were obtained by spreading POPC/PIP2 (92:8) small unilamellar vesicles onto hydrophilic silicon substrates at a low pH of 4.8. These membranes were capable of binding ezrin, resulting in large protein coverage as concluded from reflectometric interference spectroscopy and fluorescence microscopy. As deduced from fluorescence microscopy, only under low pH conditions, a homogeneously appearing distribution of fluorescently labeled PIP2 molecules in the membrane was achieved. Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching experiments revealed that PIP2 is not mobile in the bottom layer of the SLBs, while PIP2 is fully mobile in the top layer with diffusion coefficients of about 3 µm(2)/s. This diffusion coefficient was considerably reduced by a factor of about 3 if ezrin has been bound to PIP2 in the membrane.

Activation of F-actin binding capacity of ezrin: synergism of PIP2 interaction and phosphorylation.

Ezrin is a membrane-cytoskeleton linker protein that can bind F-actin in its active conformation. Several means of regulation of ezrin's activity have been described including phosphorylation of Thr-567 and binding of L-α-phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate (PIP(2)). However, the relative contributions of these events toward activation of the protein and their potential interdependence are not known. We developed an assay based on solid-supported membranes, to which different ezrin mutants (ezrin T567A (inactive mutant), wild-type, and T567D (active pseudophosphorylated mutant)) were bound, that enabled us to analyze the influence of phosphorylation and PIP(2) binding on ezrin's activation state in vitro. The lipid bilayers employed contained either DOGS-NTA-Ni to bind the proteins via an N-terminal His-tag, or PIP(2), to which ezrin binds via specific binding sites located in the N-terminal region of the protein. Quantitative analysis of the binding behavior of all three proteins to the two different receptor lipids revealed that all three bind with high affinity and specificity to the two receptor lipids. Fluorescence microscopy on ezrin-decorated solid-supported membranes showed that, dependent on the mode of binding and the phosphorylation state, ezrin is capable of binding actin filaments. A clear synergism between phosphorylation and the receptor lipid PIP(2) was observed, suggesting a conformational switch from the dormant to the active, F-actin binding state by recognition of PIP(2), which is enhanced by the phosphorylation.

Particle Targeting in Complex Biological Media.

Over the past few decades, nanoengineered particles have gained increasing interest for applications in the biomedical realm, including diagnosis, imaging, and therapy. When functionalized with targeting ligands, these particles have the potential to interact with specific cells and tissues, and accumulate at desired target sites, reducing side effects and improve overall efficacy in applications such as vaccination and drug delivery. However, when targeted particles enter a complex biological environment, the adsorption of biomolecules and the formation of a surface coating (e.g., a protein corona) changes the properties of the carriers and can render their behavior unpredictable. For this reason, it is of importance to consider the potential challenges imposed by the biological environment at the early stages of particle design. This review describes parameters that affect the targeting ability of particulate drug carriers, with an emphasis on the effect of the protein corona. We highlight strategies for exploiting the protein corona to improve the targeting ability of particles. Finally, we provide suggestions for complementing current in vitro assays used for the evaluation of targeting and carrier efficacy with new and emerging techniques (e.g., 3D models and flow-based technologies) to advance fundamental understanding in bio-nano science and to accelerate the development of targeted particles for biomedical applications.

Glycogen-nucleic acid constructs for gene silencing in multicellular tumor spheroids.

The poor penetration of nanocarrier-siRNA constructs into tumor tissue is a major hurdle for the in vivo efficacy of siRNA therapeutics, where the ability of the constructs to permeate the 3D multicellular matrix is determined by their physicochemical properties. Herein, we optimized the use of soft glycogen nanoparticles for the engineering of glycogen-siRNA constructs that can efficiently penetrate multicellular tumor spheroids and exert a significant gene silencing effect. Glycogen nanoparticles from different bio-sources and with different structural features were investigated. We show that larger glycogen nanoparticles ranging from 50 to 80 nm are suboptimal systems for complexation of nucleic acids if fine control of the size of constructs is required. Our studies suggest that 20 nm glycogen nanoparticles are optimal for complexation and efficient delivery of siRNA. The chemical composition, surface charge, and size of glycogen-siRNA constructs were finely controlled to minimize interactions with serum proteins and allow penetration into 3D multicellular spheroids of human kidney epithelial cells and human prostate cancer cells. We introduced pH sensitive moieties within the construct to enhance early endosome escape and efficiently improve the silencing effect in vitro. Glycogen-siRNA constructs were found to mediate gene silencing in 3D multicellular spheroids causing ∼60% specific gene silencing. The optimized construct exhibited an in vivo circulation lifetime of 8 h in mice, with preferential accumulation in the liver. No accumulation in the kidney, lung, spleen, heart or brain, or signs of toxicity in mice were observed. Our results highlight the potential for screening siRNA nanocarriers in 3D cultured prostate tumor models, thereby improving the predictive therapeutic efficacy of glycogen-based platforms in human physiological conditions.

Biofunctional metal-phenolic films from dietary flavonoids.

We assembled dietary, bioactive flavonoids into a metal coordinated network to form thin, surface-bound films and hollow capsules, overcoming the poor water solubility of free flavonoids. Films formed from quercetin, myricetin, luteolin and fisetin show radical scavenging activity, a renowned feature of their parent flavonoids, and can be reused over multiple cycles. These films are expected to have potential applications in the pharmaceutical and food industries.

Interactions between circulating nanoengineered polymer particles and extracellular matrix components in vitro.

The extracellular matrix (ECM) that surrounds cells in vivo represents a biological barrier for nanomaterials in biomedicine. Herein, we present a system for investigating the interactions between circulating polymer particles and ECM components in vitro using a commercially available flow-based device. We use this system to show how material-dependent interactions of two different particle types-one assembled using poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) and one prepared using poly(methacrylic acid) (PMA)-affect their interactions with basement membrane extracts during in vitro circulation, with PEG particles remaining in circulation longer than PMA particles. Further, by comparing macroporous hyaluronic acid gel constructs (typically used for tissue engineering) with basement membrane extracts, we show that scaffold-effects (porosity and surface chemistry) impact on circulation time in vitro. The presented system is simple and modular, and can be used to rapidly screen fundamental interactions of engineered particles with biologically relevant microenvironments under flow-conditions.

Probing cell internalisation mechanics with polymer capsules.

We report polymer capsule-based probes for quantifying the pressure exerted by cells during capsule internalisation (Pin). Poly(methacrylic acid) (PMA) capsules with tuneable mechanical properties were fabricated through layer-by-layer assembly. The Pin was quantified by correlating the cell-induced deformation with the ex situ osmotically induced deformation of the polymer capsules. Ultimately, we found that human monocyte-derived macrophage THP-1 cells exerted up to approximately 360 kPa on the capsules during internalisation.