Measuring depressive symptoms among Latinos in the US: a psychometric evaluation of the CES-D Boston form.

PURPOSE: We present a psychometric evaluation of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Boston Form (CES-D-B) for use with different Latino subgroups as there is inconsistency regarding its performance across subgroups of Latinos, a large and rapidly growing cultural group in the United States. METHODS: We evaluated the reliability and structural validity of the scores generated by the CES-D-B using four distinct Latino samples residing in US: Mexicans, Venezuelans, Cubans, and "other Latinos" (total N = 1033). To further explore structural validity of CES-D-B scores, we conducted measurement invariance analyses across different countries of origin, gender groups, educational levels, and languages of assessment (English, Spanish). RESULTS: For all four samples, CES-D-B scores were highly reliable as indicated with the coefficients ranging from 0.82 to 0.88, and the factor structure provided an adequate fit to the data with the fit indices CFI/TLI ranging from 0.96 to 0.99, RMSEA estimates between 0.02 and 0.07, and SRMR estimates between 0.02 and 0.04. While measurement invariance analyses for different educational levels indicated scalar invariance across all samples, the same level of measurement equivalency was achieved only for Mexicans and Venezuelans with varying gender and languages of assessment. CONCLUSIONS: The findings indicated that CES-D-B scores are internally consistent, possess a strong four-factor structure, and have somewhat equivalent psychometric properties across diverse Latino groups. Findings from this study highlight the importance of considering gender and languages of assessment when assessing depressive symptoms of various Latino subgroups.

Experiences of cultural stress among U.S. citizen migrants: A mixed method approach.

On September 20, 2017, Hurricane Maria made landfall in Puerto Rico, devastating the archipelago and forcing thousands of Puerto Ricans to migrate to the U.S. mainland. Guided by a cultural stress theory framework, the present mixed method study examined how various cultural stressors impact participants' daily interactions and mental health outcomes. A total of 319 adult Hurricane Maria survivors residing on the U.S. mainland participated in the study. A mixed method sequential explanatory design was used. First, we used latent profile analysis (LPA) and multinomial logistic regression to identify the varied cultural stress experiences that participants had. Then we used data from semistructured interviews to better understand the experiences of participants classified into the different LPA profiles. Four profiles were identified: "moderate cultural stress" (35%), "overall low" (29%), "high cultural stress" (26%), and "low language stress" (10%). Multinomial regression indicated that members of the moderate cultural stress, high cultural stress, and low language stress profiles all reported significantly higher depressive and anxiety symptoms compared to members of the overall low profile. Qualitative data exemplified the daily experiences of participants placed into each profile, demonstrating that participants have rich and varied experiences that can contribute to their mental health symptoms. The present study documents the contributions of hurricane trauma and cultural stress vis-à-vis current mental health symptoms. Clinicians working with Hurricane Maria survivors should be cognizant of and inquire about migration-related cultural stressors including discrimination, feelings of being unwelcomed, and difficulty communicating in the destination community's dominant language. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

The impact of cultural stress on family functioning among Puerto Rican displaced families and the effect on mental health.

Hurricane María caused significant devastation on the island of Puerto Rico, impacting thousands of lives. Puerto Rican crisis migrant families faced stress related to displacement and relocation (cultural stress), often exhibited mental health symptoms, and experienced distress at the family level. Although cultural stress has been examined as an individual experience, little work has focused on the experience as a family. To address this gap, we conducted a mixed-methods study designed to examine the predictive effects of cultural stress on family conflict and its mental health implications among Puerto Rican Hurricane María parent and child dyads living on the U.S. mainland. In the quantitative phase of the study, 110 parent-child dyads completed an online survey assessing cultural stress, family dynamics, and mental health. As part of our primary analysis, we estimated a structural equation path model. Findings from the quantitative phase showed a significant positive relationship between family cultural stress and family conflict, as well as individual parent and child mental health symptoms. In the qualitative phase of the study, 35 parent-child dyads participated in individual interviews. Findings from the interviews revealed variations in difficulties related to language, discrimination, and financial burdens, with some participants adapting more quickly and experiencing fewer stressors. Findings also highlight the impact on mental health for both parents and youth, emphasizing the family-level nature of cultural stress, while noting a potential discrepancy between qualitative and quantitative findings in the discussion of family conflict.

Family Functioning in Hispanic Parents of Adolescents: Who Benefits Most from a Family-Based HIV and Substance Use Preventive Intervention?

To understand which families are likely to benefit most from resource-intensive family-based, evidence-based interventions (EBIs), we must examine the key, modifiable determinant of family functioning. The purpose of this study was to (1) identify whether there are subgroups of Hispanic parents that differ meaningfully based on their family functioning at baseline, (2) test whether the Familias Unidas preventive intervention was differentially effective across the baseline family functioning subgroups, and (3) understand the mechanisms of intervention effectiveness within each baseline family functioning subgroup. On a pooled data set of 4 completed efficacy and effectiveness trials of Familias Unidas (n = 1445 low-income, Hispanic immigrant origin, parents and their adolescent between the ages of 12-17), we conducted a series of secondary data analyses. Latent profile analyses revealed four significantly different profiles: (1) low family functioning (n = 210, 14.55%), (2) low-to-moderate family functioning (n = 554, 38.39%), (3) moderate-to-high family functioning (n = 490, 33.96%), and (4) high family functioning (n = 189, 13.10%). A structural equation modeling approach found there were significant differences in intervention effectiveness between the subgroups. The low family functioning subgroup experienced gains in family functioning, and in turn, lower levels of adolescent substance use, internalizing, and externalizing symptoms. The high family functioning subgroup showed significant direct effects of the intervention on adolescent substance use, internalizing, and externalizing symptoms, but no indirect effects through improvements in family functioning. Implications for screening, targeting, and adapting interventions are discussed.

Etiologic mechanisms in an adapted family-based preventive intervention for underage alcohol use in Mexico: Results of an exploratory pilot study.

Alcohol use represents a global health problem, especially for Latin American youth. As part of the Global Smart Drinking Goals campaign, a family-based preventive intervention was adapted and piloted in Mexico based on an existing evidence-based program, Guiding Good Choices. In this study, we explored the malleability and session-specific mean-level changes in protective and risk factors targeted by the adapted family intervention as related to the prevention of underage alcohol use and abuse. The sample consisted of 177 parents working at four private local companies who had children between the ages of 8 and 16. Data were collected before and after each program session. Linear mixed-effects models were used to examine growth trajectories and session-specific mean differences for selected etiologic factors. Significant effects on protective and risk factors were found. Among protective factors, positive family involvement showed the most considerable linear growth over time, while clear standards for youth showed the largest within-session increase. The greatest linear decrease in risk was observed for family conflict, which also showed the greatest pre-, and post-session reduction. Our findings suggest that the adapted program helped families develop protection against, and reduce risk of, alcohol use in their adolescent children. Results from this exploratory pilot study provide support for further rigorous evaluation and dissemination of the adapted intervention for Hispanic families.

The importance of acculturation orientation in understanding the impact of pre- and post-migration stressors on behavioral health: Evidence from a crisis migrant sample.

OBJECTIVE: We examine the interplay of acculturation orientation, cultural stress, and hurricane trauma exposure with behavioral health among Puerto Rican crisis migrants who relocated to the US mainland after Hurricane Maria. METHOD: Participants were 319 adult (Mage = 39 years; 71% female; 90% arriving in 2017-2018) Hurricane Maria survivors surveyed on the US mainland. Latent profile analysis was used to model acculturation subtypes. In turn, ordinary least squares regression was executed to examine the associations of cultural stress and hurricane trauma exposure with behavioral health while stratifying by acculturation subtype. RESULTS: Five acculturation orientation subtypes were modeled, three of which-Separated (24%), Marginalized (13%), and Full Bicultural (14%)-align closely with prior theorizing. We also identified Partially Bicultural (21%) and Moderate (28%) subtypes. Stratifying by acculturation subtype, with behavioral health (depression/anxiety symptoms) specified as the dependent variable, hurricane trauma and cultural stress accounted for only 4% of explained variance in the Moderate class, a somewhat greater percentage in the Partial Bicultural (12%) and Separated (15%) classes, and substantially greater amounts of variance in the Marginalized (25%) and Full Bicultural (56%) classes. CONCLUSION: Findings underscore the importance of accounting for acculturation in understanding the relationship between stress and behavioral health among climate migrants.

Perceived Negative Political Climate Among Hispanic/Latino Adolescents Before and After the 2020 U.S. Presidential Election: Associations with Internalizing Symptoms and Substance Use.

The political climate often changes following the installment of a new president. This volatility presents opportunities for examining how elections might affect vulnerable subgroups such as Hispanic/Latino (HL) adolescents. The present study explored the perception of negative political climate among HL adolescents before and after the 2020 U.S. presidential election and its association with internalizing symptoms and substance use. We conducted the study in Los Angeles and Miami between 2020-2021, with a sample of 304 HL adolescents (Females = 60.8%), aged 15.3 years on average. Participants completed measures of negative political climate (pre- post-election) and measures of depressive symptoms, anxiety, substance misuse, and substance use intentions after the election. We used paired tests and linear mixed-effects modeling to explore changes in perceived negative climate before and after the election. Structural equation modeling was used to determine predictors of negative political climate and its associations with internalizing symptoms and substance use. Results indicated that following the election negative political climate increased significantly in Miami and among Cuban-origin adolescents but not in Los Angeles or among Mexican-origin adolescents. Pre-election perceived negative political climate was significantly predicted by gender, study site, and mother's nativity. Pre-election negative political climate predicted post-election internalizing symptoms and substance use intentions indirectly through post-election negative political climate. HL youth's perceived political climate is a complex construct that might vary across different sociopolitical contexts and populational sub-groups. Exploring variations in politically-based cultural stressors and their role as mental health and substance use risk factors is crucial to addressing HL disparities. KEY WORDS: Adolescence, Hispanic/Latino, political climate, presidential election, internalizing symptoms, substance use.

Predictors of Engagement and Attendance of a Family-Based Prevention Program for Underage Drinking in Mexico.

Underage drinking represents a major global health problem. Given the crisis that underage drinking represents, Tomando Buenas Decisiones, a family-based prevention program, was adapted and piloted in Mexico based on the existing Guiding Good Choices program. Although family-based interventions in the USA are promising for preventing underage drinking, little is known about how adapted versions of these interventions may work in low-middle income countries, such as in Latin America. The present study examined whether baseline individual, familial, and cultural factors predict participants' engagement and attendance in an adapted program for preventing underage drinking in Zacatecas, Mexico. The study was conducted with a sample of 178 parents who participated in the adapted program and were employed at local private companies. Latent growth curve modeling was used to analyze (a) change in engagement, (b) predictors of engagement, and (c) predictors of attendance. Results indicated that perceived engagement evidenced a significant linear increase throughout the intervention. Participants' familism values, such as perceived family as referents and family support, at baseline predicted both initial levels of and change in engagement. Perceived familial obligation also predicted change in engagement. Attendance was negatively predicted by male gender, by perceived stress, and by perceived familial obligations among women only. Poor family management, and perceived familial obligations among men, positively predicted attendance. Our findings have important implications for the conceptualization of engagement and attendance in family-based preventive interventions for underage drinking among Hispanics. Researchers interested in implementing interventions in Latin America can use these findings to better comprehend how and for whom adapted family-based preventive interventions work.

Development and Implementation of Businesses That Care in Zacatecas, Mexico.

As part of the Global Smart Drinking Goals campaign launched in 2018 in 6 "City Pilots" around the world, the Businesses That Care (BTC; Empresas Que se Cuidan in Spanish) prevention system was developed and implemented in Zacatecas, Mexico. BTC is a private business sector adaptation of the Communities That Care prevention system. BTC is designed to address underage alcohol use through a combination of a company-led prevention system, an adapted family-based prevention program with parents employed at participating companies, and environmental prevention strategies for company employees. BTC was designed to be congruent with other health and safety efforts in the region (e.g., media campaign, road safety, and school prevention efforts). This study presents the feasibility and adoption of the BTC system in Zacatecas. Process implementation measures indicated successful participant recruitment, retention, and adherence to intervention protocols. The first 4 stages of BTC implementation were completed within 14 months, with Stage 5 being interrupted by the COVID-19 pandemic. BTC Prevention Committee members, made up of employees from BTC participating companies, received 9 out of 10 BTC trainings/workshops during this time. Results provide evidence of the acceptability and feasibility for private companies to implement a prevention system approach for reducing youth alcohol use.

Adaptation of the Communities That Care Youth Survey for use in Brazil: A pilot study.

Substance use and violence are serious problems affecting Brazilian youth, prompting local authorities to invest in adapting and implementing evidence-based prevention programs developed abroad. To ensure that interventions are effective, valid and reliable measures of risk factors for substance use and violence are needed. We conducted a pilot examination of the measurement properties of risk factors in the Communities That Care Youth Survey (CTCYS), a school-based survey developed in the United States. The Brazilian-adapted CTCYS included 25 risk factors as well as measures of substance use and antisocial behaviors. The survey was translated into Brazilian Portuguese and adapted for use in Brazil, incorporating suggestions from local experts. The survey was administered to 926 students in one Brazilian community. Results indicate that scale internal consistency was acceptable for all but two scales: (i) Academic Failure and (ii) Rebelliousness. Confirmatory factor analyses suggested good model fit for most measurement models albeit with minor modifications for most scales. Findings from this pilot study provide a foundation for the use of the CTCYS in Brazil to assess community levels of adolescent risk and evaluate prevention programs.

Community utilization of risk and protective factor data for prevention planning in Chile and Colombia.

Many effective community health service delivery systems implemented in the USA assess risk and protective factors (RPFs) for youth problem behaviors in a community, and report these data back to local coalitions for prevention planning. This study examined whether community prevention coalitions in Chile and Colombia perceived these reports of RPFs-based on the results of the Communities That Care Youth Survey-to be understandable, valid, useful, and worth disseminating. Thematic content analysis was used to analyze qualitative data collected from 7 focus groups with 75 coalition members. Results indicated heterogeneity between and within coalitions in terms of participants' understanding of RPFs. However, most participants found reports of RPFs to be easy to understand, thorough, 'true' to their communities, and useful for diagnosing and prioritizing needs, action planning, and mobilizing others in their communities. Findings suggest the viability of preventive systems that rely on community-level RPF data, for use in Latin America.

Contextual Fit of a Family Evidence-Based Intervention for Preventing Youth Alcohol Use in Mexico.

Reducing youth alcohol use is a public health priority that can be addressed by implementing evidence-based preventive interventions (EBPIs) with high fidelity. However, when EBPIs are delivered in a new geographical setting, lack of contextual fit might interfere with expected effects. The purpose of our study was to understand the contextual fit of the family preventive program, Guiding Good Choices (GGC), to inform its future adaptation in Zacatecas, Mexico. Four focus groups were conducted with parents of children aged 9-14 years (N = 43) from four private companies. After transcribing audiotaped sessions, we used a general inductive approach to obtain codes and derive themes. Parents expressed a high level of interest in program content, highlighting its potential to decrease underage drinking in Mexico. Surface-structure modifications of program audiovisual materials (e.g., new videos with Mexican actors and locations) and delivery methods were recommended by parents to maximize participant acceptability and engagement. Participant definitions of family and perception of family dynamics both support the cultural relevance of the program modules and activities related to this content. Underage drinking was acknowledged by parents as a major problem in Zacatecas. Our findings suggest a need for incorporating an extra session that focuses on addressing low alcohol literacy levels and parents' positive alcohol expectancies. Machismo was not considered a cultural factor that could affect attendance and program activities. In fact, we observed an opportunity to use local masculinity to ensure practice of parental skills at home. Due to the needs expressed by participants and the apparent compatibility and fit of the curriculum contents with the new context, we conclude that GGC could be an adequate EBPI for preventing underage drinking in Mexico.

Cultural Stress in the Age of Mass Xenophobia: Perspectives from Latin/o Adolescents.

During the last four years, xenophobic rhetoric directed toward Latino immigrants in U.S. media outlets and political forums has greatly increased. Using a general inductive approach, this qualitative study examined the forms of cultural stress, with a focus on discrimination and xenophobia, experienced by Latino adolescents in urban U.S. settings in 2018 and 2019. Six focus groups were conducted in Miami and Los Angeles (three groups per city) with first- and second-generation tenth-grade Latino students (n = 34). The following four themes emerged from the data: perceived discrimination from other Latino subgroups (in-group discrimination), perceived discrimination from non-Latino groups (out-group discrimination), internalization of stressors and discrimination experienced by participants' parents, and the current U.S. political rhetoric surrounding immigration. Understanding cultural stress among Latino adolescents provides valuable insight for future interventions to offset negative health outcomes associated with cultural stress.

Adolescent substance use and its association with risk and protective factors. An exploratory analysis of the large-scale school survey of Comunidades Que se Cuidan, Colombia. / Uso de sustancias en adolescentes y su asociación con factores de riesgo y protección. Un análisis exploratorio de la encuesta escolar a gran escala de Comunidades Que se Cuidan, Colombia.

Communities That Care (CTC) is a prevention system aimed at reducing antisocial behaviors in adolescents. In Colombia, this system has been developed and adapted under the name of Comunidades Que se Cuidan (CQC). Successful implementation of CQC depends on valid associations between measured risk and protective factors (RPFs) for substance use and substance use outcomes. This study assessed these associations using large-scale, school-based surveys of Colombian youth. A cross-sectional analysis was performed. Data from 23 communities in Colombia were collected between 2012 and 2016 from young people (N = 50,946) aged 10 to 19 years. Dichotomous alcohol, cigarette, cannabis, and other illegal drug use outcomes were assessed for past 30-day, past-year, and lifetime use. Logistic regression analyses, adjusting for age, gender, and age by RPF, and gender by RPF interactions, were performed for each RPF. All the associations of the 14 RPF evaluated were statistically significant (p<,001). Regarding observed effect sizes, 3.0% were considered very small (0.70 ≥ OR ≤ 1.43), 51.7% small (0.70 ≥ OR ≥ 1.43), 42.6% medium (0.40 ≥ OR ≥ 2.48) and 7.1% large (0.23 ≥ OR ≥ 4.27). Significant main effects for age and gender, and their interactions with RPFs were found for most RPFs. Findings from this study demonstrate the viability of RPFs for adolescent substance use as focal points for intervention planning, development, and evaluation of community-based prevention systems like CQC that rely on epidemiologic data for local decision making.

Communities That Care (CTC) es un sistema preventivo que busca disminuir comportamientos problemáticos en adolescentes. En Colombia, este sistema ha sido adaptado bajo el nombre de Comunidades Que se Cuidan (CQC). Este estudio validó las asociaciones entre los factores de riesgo y protección (FRP) para el uso de sustancias psicoactivas (SPA) medidos por CQC y las prevalencias de consumo de estas en adolescentes colombianos. Entre 2012 y 2016, se aplicó una encuesta a gran escala en jóvenes de 10 a 19 años (N = 50,946) pertenecientes a 23 comunidades de Colombia. Se analizó de forma transversal la asociación entre los FRP con el consumo de alcohol, cigarrillo, marihuana y otras drogas ilegales en los últimos 30 días, año y alguna vez en la vida. Se realizaron regresiones logísticas, ajustando por edad, sexo y sus interacciones con cada FRP. Todas las asociaciones de los 14 FRP evaluados fueron significativas (p<,001). De los efectos observados, 3,0% se consideraron efectos muy pequeños (0,70 ≤ OR ≤ 1,43), 51,7% pequeños (0,70 ≥ OR ≥ 1,43), 42,6% medianos (0,40 ≥ OR ≥ 2,48) y 7,1% grandes (0,23 ≥ OR ≥ 4,27). Se encontraron asociaciones significativas para edad, sexo y sus interacciones con los FRP para la mayoría de FRP. Los hallazgos demuestran la validez de los FRP estudiados para la planificación, el desarrollo y la evaluación futura de sistemas preventivos comunitarios como CQC, los cuales se basan en datos epidemiológicos para la toma de decisiones locales.

Supramolecular Interactions of Group VI Metal Carbonyl Complexes: The Facilitating Role of 1,3-Bis( p-isocyanophenyl)urea.

An investigation of supramolecular phenomena involving zerovalent transition metal complexes was facilitated by the production of the ditopic isocyanide ligand 1,3-bis( p-isocyanophenyl)urea, which was synthesized via substoichiometric phosgenation of 4-isocyanophenylamine and used to coordinate group VI metal carbonyl fragments. The resulting binuclear organometallic complexes were observed to pack into ladder-like anisotropic arrays in the solid state. Crystallographic and computational evidence suggests that this packing motif can be attributed to a combination of intermolecular π-π and urea-π interactions. Similar to other N, N'-diarylureas bearing electron-withdrawing groups, 1,3-bis( p-isocyanophenyl)urea and the organometallic complexes prepared therefrom also exhibit an affinity toward anion binding in nonaqueous solution. Equilibrium constants ( K) for the formation of host-guest complexes between the organometallic derivatives of 1,3-bis( p-isocyanophenyl)urea and chloride, nitrate, and acetate anions exceed 103, 104, and 105 M-1, respectively.

Defining and achieving permanency among older youth in foster care.

Permanency is a key child welfare system goal for the children they serve. This study addresses three key research questions: (1) How do older youth in foster care define their personal permanency goals? (2) How much progress have these youth made in achieving their personal permanency goals and other aspects of relational permanency, and how does this vary by gender, race, and age? and (3) What transition-related outcomes are associated with relational permanency achievement? Surveys were conducted with 97 youth between the ages of 14 and 20 currently in care. Over three-fourths of participants had an informal/relational permanency goal; however, only 6.7% had achieved their goal. Of eight additional conceptualizations of relational permanency assessed, the one associated with achievement of the highest number of key transition outcomes was Sense of Family Belonging. The transition outcomes with the most associations with permanency achievement were physical health and mental health. Relational permanency is a highly personal part of the transition process for youth in care, warranting personalized supports to ensure individual youths' goals are being addressed in transition planning. Permanency achievement may also provide a foundation for supporting youth in achieving other key transition outcomes.

Transcriptome outlier analysis implicates schizophrenia susceptibility genes and enriches putatively functional rare genetic variants.

We searched a gene expression dataset comprised of 634 schizophrenia (SZ) cases and 713 controls for expression outliers (i.e., extreme tails of the distribution of transcript expression values) with SZ cases overrepresented compared with controls. These outlier genes were enriched for brain expression and for genes known to be associated with neurodevelopmental disorders. SZ cases showed higher outlier burden (i.e., total outlier events per subject) than controls for genes within copy number variants (CNVs) associated with SZ or neurodevelopmental disorders. Outlier genes were enriched for CNVs and for rare putative regulatory variants, but this only explained a small proportion of the outlier subjects, highlighting the underlying presence of additional genetic and potentially, epigenetic mechanisms.

Effects of Communities That Care on Males' and Females' Drug Use and Delinquency 9 Years After Baseline in a Community-Randomized Trial.

UNLABELLED: This study tested sustained effects of the Communities That Care (CTC) prevention system on health-risking behaviors 9 years after baseline in a community-randomized trial involving 24 towns in seven states. Earlier analyses found sustained effects on abstinence from drug use and delinquency through Grade 12 in a panel of fifth graders. At age 19, 91 % (n = 3986) of the living panel completed the survey. Data were analyzed using generalized linear mixed models. The prevalence of lifetime and current substance use and delinquency were the primary outcomes. Secondary outcomes included substance use disorders, major depression, suicidality, educational attainment, and sexual risk behaviors. CTC had a significant overall effect across lifetime measures of the primary outcomes for males, but not for females or the full sample, although lifetime abstinence from delinquency in the full sample was significantly higher in CTC communities (ARR = 1.16). Males in CTC communities also continued to show greater lifetime abstinence from cigarette smoking (ARR = 1.22). CTC did not have a sustained effect on current substance use and delinquency nor did it improve the secondary outcomes at age 19 for either gender. Communities using CTC may need to extend their prevention planning to include the high school years to sustain effects on drug use and delinquency beyond high school for both genders. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT01088542.

Engagement matters: lessons from assessing classroom implementation of steps to respect: a bullying prevention program over a one-year period.

Steps to Respect: A Bullying Prevention Program (STR) relies on a social-ecological model of prevention to increase school staff awareness and responsiveness, foster socially responsible beliefs among students, and teach social-emotional skills to students to reduce bullying behavior. As part of a school-randomized controlled trial of STR, we examined predictors and outcomes associated with classroom curriculum implementation in intervention schools. Data on classroom implementation (adherence and engagement) were collected from a sample of teachers using a weekly on-line Teacher Implementation Checklist system. Pre-post data related to school bullying-related outcomes were collected from 1,424 students and archival school demographic data were obtained from the National Center for Education Statistics. Results of multilevel analyses indicated that higher levels of program engagement were influenced by school-level percentage of students receiving free/reduced lunch, as well as classroom-level climate indicators. Results also suggest that higher levels of program engagement were related to lower levels of school bullying problems, enhanced school climate and attitudes less supportive of bullying. Predictors and outcomes related to program fidelity (i.e., adherence) were largely nonsignificant. Results suggest that student engagement is a key element of program impact, though implementation is influenced by both school-level demographics and classroom contexts.

Prevention system mediation of communities that care effects on youth outcomes.

This study examined whether the significant intervention effects of the Communities That Care (CTC) prevention system on youth problem behaviors observed in a panel of eighth-grade students (Hawkins et al. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 163:789-798 2009) were mediated by community-level prevention system constructs posited in the CTC theory of change. Potential prevention system constructs included the community's degree of (a) adoption of a science-based approach to prevention, (b) collaboration on prevention activities, (c) support for prevention, and (d) norms against adolescent drug use as reported by key community leaders in 24 communities. Higher levels of community adoption of a science-based approach to prevention and support for prevention in 2004 predicted significantly lower levels of youth problem behaviors in 2007, and higher levels of community norms against adolescent drug use predicted lower levels of youth drug use in 2007. Effects of the CTC intervention on youth problem behaviors by the end of eighth grade were mediated fully by community adoption of a science-based approach to prevention. No other significant mediated effects were found. Results support CTC's theory of change that encourages communities to adopt a science-based approach to prevention as a primary mechanism for improving youth outcomes.