Epizootic Hemorrhagic Disease Virus Serotype 8, Italy, 2022.

We describe the detection of epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus (EHDV) serotype 8 in cattle farms in Sardinia and Sicily in October-November 2022. The virus has a direct origin in North Africa; its genome is identical (>99.9% nucleotide sequence identity) to EHDV serotype 8 strains detected in Tunisia in 2021.

Severe Streptococcus equi Subspecies zooepidemicus Outbreak from Unpasteurized Dairy Product Consumption, Italy.

During November 2021-May 2022, we identified 37 clinical cases of Streptococcus equi subspecies zooepidemicus infections in central Italy. Epidemiologic investigations and whole-genome sequencing showed unpasteurized fresh dairy products were the outbreak source. Early diagnosis by using sequencing technology prevented the spread of life-threatening S. equi subsp. zooepidemicus infections.

SARS-CoV-2 surveillance in Italy through phylogenomic inferences based on Hamming distances derived from pan-SNPs, -MNPs and -InDels.

BACKGROUND: Faced with the ongoing global pandemic of coronavirus disease, the 'National Reference Centre for Whole Genome Sequencing of microbial pathogens: database and bioinformatic analysis' (GENPAT) formally established at the 'Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise' (IZSAM) in Teramo (Italy) is in charge of the SARS-CoV-2 surveillance at the genomic scale. In a context of SARS-CoV-2 surveillance requiring correct and fast assessment of epidemiological clusters from substantial amount of samples, the present study proposes an analytical workflow for identifying accurately the PANGO lineages of SARS-CoV-2 samples and building of discriminant minimum spanning trees (MST) bypassing the usual time consuming phylogenomic inferences based on multiple sequence alignment (MSA) and substitution model. RESULTS: GENPAT constituted two collections of SARS-CoV-2 samples. The first collection consisted of SARS-CoV-2 positive swabs collected by IZSAM from the Abruzzo region (Italy), then sequenced by next generation sequencing (NGS) and analyzed in GENPAT (n = 1592), while the second collection included samples from several Italian provinces and retrieved from the reference Global Initiative on Sharing All Influenza Data (GISAID) (n = 17,201). The main results of the present work showed that (i) GENPAT and GISAID detected the same PANGO lineages, (ii) the PANGO lineages B.1.177 (i.e. historical in Italy) and B.1.1.7 (i.e. 'UK variant') are major concerns today in several Italian provinces, and the new MST-based method (iii) clusters most of the PANGO lineages together, (iv) with a higher dicriminatory power than PANGO lineages, (v) and faster that the usual phylogenomic methods based on MSA and substitution model. CONCLUSIONS: The genome sequencing efforts of Italian provinces, combined with a structured national system of NGS data management, provided support for surveillance SARS-CoV-2 in Italy. We propose to build phylogenomic trees of SARS-CoV-2 variants through an accurate, discriminant and fast MST-based method avoiding the typical time consuming steps related to MSA and substitution model-based phylogenomic inference.

Origins and global context of Brucella abortus in Italy.

BACKGROUND: Brucellosis is a common and chronic disease of cattle and other bovids that often causes reproductive disorders. Natural infection in cattle is caused by Brucella abortus and transmission typically occurs during abortions, calving, or nursing. Brucellosis is also a major zoonotic disease due to contamination of dairy products or contact with the tissues of infected animals. Brucellosis has been eradicated from most of the developed world in the last 40 years but persists in many regions-the disease remains prevalent in portions of Africa, the Middle East, Asia, and Central and South America, as well as in the Mediterranean basin. In Italy, B. abortus has persisted in southern regions in both cattle and water buffalo. Previous attempts at analyzing the phylogenetics of B. abortus in Italy have been challenging due to limited genetic variability and unresolved global population genetic structure of this pathogen. RESULTS: We conducted genome-wide phylogenetic analyses on 11 representative strains of B. abortus from Italy, and compared these sequences to a worldwide collection of publically available genomes. Italian isolates belong to three clades that are basal to the main and global B. abortus lineage. Using six SNP-based assays designed to identify substructure within the Italian clades, we surveyed a collection of 261 isolates and found that one clade predominates throughout endemic districts in the country, while the other two clades are more geographically restricted to portions of southern Italy. CONCLUSIONS: Although related strains exist worldwide, B. abortus isolates from Italy are substantially different than those found in much of the rest of Europe and North America, and are more closely related to strains from the Middle East and Asia. Our assays targeting genetic substructure within Italy allowed us to identify the major lineages quickly and inexpensively, without having to generate whole genome sequences for a large isolate collection. These findings highlight the importance of genetic studies to assess the status and the history of pathogens.

West Nile virus surveillance in Europe: moving towards an integrated animal-human-vector approach.

This article uses the experience of five European countries to review the integrated approaches (human, animal and vector) for surveillance and monitoring of West Nile virus (WNV) at national and European levels. The epidemiological situation of West Nile fever in Europe is heterogeneous. No model of surveillance and monitoring fits all, hence this article merely encourages countries to implement the integrated approach that meets their needs. Integration of surveillance and monitoring activities conducted by the public health authorities, the animal health authorities and the authorities in charge of vector surveillance and control should improve efficiency and save resources by implementing targeted measures. The creation of a formal interagency working group is identified as a crucial step towards integration. Blood safety is a key incentive for public health authorities to allocate sufficient resources for WNV surveillance, while the facts that an effective vaccine is available for horses and that most infected animals remain asymptomatic make the disease a lesser priority for animal health authorities. The examples described here can support other European countries wishing to strengthen their WNV surveillance or preparedness, and also serve as a model for surveillance and monitoring of other (vector-borne) zoonotic infections.

West Nile virus transmission: results from the integrated surveillance system in Italy, 2008 to 2015.

In Italy a national Plan for the surveillance of imported and autochthonous human vector-borne diseases (chikungunya, dengue, Zika virus disease and West Nile virus (WNV) disease) that integrates human and veterinary (animals and vectors) surveillance, is issued and revised annually according with the observed epidemiological changes. Here we describe results of the WNV integrated veterinary and human surveillance systems in Italy from 2008 to 2015. A real time data exchange protocol is in place between the surveillance systems to rapidly identify occurrence of human and animal cases and to define and update the map of affected areas i.e. provinces during the vector activity period from June to October. WNV continues to cause severe illnesses in Italy during every transmission season, albeit cases are sporadic and the epidemiology varies by virus lineage and geographic area. The integration of surveillance activities and a multidisciplinary approach made it possible and have been fundamental in supporting implementation of and/or strengthening preventive measures aimed at reducing the risk of transmission of WNV trough blood, tissues and organ donation and to implementing further measures for vector control.

Outbreak of unusual Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium monophasic variant 1,4 [5],12:i:-, Italy, June 2013 to September 2014.

Monophasic variant of Salmonella enterica subspecies enterica serovar Typhimurium (monophasic S. Typhimurium), with antigenic structure 1,4,[5],12:i:-, appears to be of increasing importance in Europe. In Italy, monophasic S. Typhimurium represented the third most frequent Salmonella serovar isolated from human cases between 2004 and 2008. From June 2013 to October 2014, a total of 206 human cases of salmonellosis were identified in Abruzzo region (Central Italy). Obtained clinical isolates characterised showed S. Typhimurium 1,4,[5],12:i:- with sole resistance to nalidixic acid, which had never been observed in Italy in monophasic S. Typhimurium, neither in humans nor in animals or foods. Epidemiological, microbiological and environmental investigations were conducted to try to identify the outbreak source. Cases were interviewed using a standardised questionnaire and microbiological tests were performed on human as well as environmental samples, including samples from fruit and vegetables, pigs, and surface water. Investigation results did not identify the final vehicle of human infection, although a link between the human cases and the contamination of irrigation water channels was suggested.

Lumpy Skin Disease.

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is a contagious non-zoonotic viral disease of cattle. The disease raises great concern due to the recent rapid spread toward free countries and reoccurrence in countries where control and preventive measures had achieved eradication. Deep nodules involving skin, subcutaneous tissue, and occasionally muscles are localized mostly in the head, neck, perineum, genitalia, udder, and limbs. LSD can cause large economic losses mainly because of the decline in milk production and the decrease in hide value, in addition to the ban of movement of animals and animal products.

Validation of a real-time PCR assay for the detection of African swine fever virus in fresh pork meat juice.

African swine fever virus (ASFV) is the etiological agent of African swine fever (ASF), a disease with detrimental effects on the health, welfare, and production of domestic and wild pigs. The ASF laboratory confirmation is based on the analysis of blood, serum and organ samples. However, testing these samples could not be always convenient, economically feasible or possible. This study describes the validation process of a PCR-based assay targeting a portion of p72 gene, used for the molecular detection of ASFV, from meat juice samples obtained from pigs succumbed to ASFV. More specifically, we investigated the capability of a real-time PCR assay to detect ASFV DNA in meat juices obtained from the diaphragmatic muscle along with the correspondent spleens of 55 ASFV-positive pigs and wild boars sampled from confirmed outbreaks in Romania and from 73 ASFV-negative and regularly slaughtered healthy pigs collected in the Abruzzo region (Italy). The test was able to detect viral DNA in both types of samples, with lower Ct values in spleens (mean=21.11, median=20.61) than meat juices (mean=23.08, median=22.40). However, distributions of Ct values were strongly correlated each other (R2= 0.83, P<0.001). Considering the distribution of the observed Ct values in the 55 positive meat juice samples, a 1:10 dilution would be able to detect 90 % of positive samples, whereas a 1:100 dilution would reduce the detectability to 78 % of more contaminated samples. As meat juice could be obtained easily from muscles and considering the potential use of this test on pooled samples, it could represent a tool to aid the investigation of ASFV spread.

Assessing the Adoption of One Health Approaches in National Plans to Combat Health Threats: The Pilot of a One Health Conceptual Framework in Armenia.

Due to several factors, such as environmental and climate changes, the risk of health threats originating at the human-animal-environment interface, including vector-borne diseases (VBDs) and zoonoses, is increasing. Low-resource settings struggle to counter these multidimensional risks due to their already-strained health systems and are therefore disproportionally affected by the impact caused by these changes. Systemic approaches like One Health (OH) are sought to strengthen prevention and preparedness strategies by addressing the drivers of potential threats with a multidisciplinary and multisectoral approach, considering the whole system at the human-animal-environment interface. The integration of OH in national plans can be challenging due to the lack of effective coordination and collaboration among different sectors. To support the process of knowledge coproduction about the level of OH integration in prevention and preparedness strategies against health threats in Armenia, a situation analysis was performed on Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever/virus and anthrax (identified by local stakeholders as priorities to be addressed with the OH approach), and actions to strengthen the national OH system were identified with the support of a OH conceptual framework. The study highlighted that multidisciplinary and multisectoral efforts towards prevention and preparedness against VBDs and zoonoses threats need to be strengthened in Armenia, and priority actions to integrate the OH approach were identified.

Vaccination of poultry against highly pathogenic avian influenza - Part 2. Surveillance and mitigation measures.

Selecting appropriate diagnostic methods that take account of the type of vaccine used is important when implementing a vaccination programme against highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI). If vaccination is effective, a decreased viral load is expected in the samples used for diagnosis, making molecular methods with high sensitivity the best choice. Although serological methods can be reasonably sensitive, they may produce results that are difficult to interpret. In addition to routine molecular monitoring, it is recommended to conduct viral isolation, genetic sequencing and phenotypic characterisation of any HPAI virus detected in vaccinated flocks to detect escape mutants early. Following emergency vaccination, various surveillance options based on virological testing of dead birds ('bucket sampling') at defined intervals were assessed to be effective for early detection of HPAIV and prove disease freedom in vaccinated populations. For ducks, virological or serological testing of live birds was assessed as an effective strategy. This surveillance could be also applied in the peri-vaccination zone on vaccinated establishments, while maintaining passive surveillance in unvaccinated chicken layers and turkeys, and weekly bucket sampling in unvaccinated ducks. To demonstrate disease freedom with > 99% confidence and to detect HPAI virus sufficiently early following preventive vaccination, monthly virological testing of all dead birds up to 15 per flock, coupled with passive surveillance in both vaccinated and unvaccinated flocks, is recommended. Reducing the sampling intervals increases the sensitivity of early detection up to 100%. To enable the safe movement of vaccinated poultry during emergency vaccination, laboratory examinations in the 72 h prior to the movement can be considered as a risk mitigation measure, in addition to clinical inspection; sampling results from existing surveillance activities carried out in these 72 h could be used. In this Opinion, several schemes are recommended to enable the safe movement of vaccinated poultry following preventive vaccination.

Welfare of sheep and goats during killing for purposes other than slaughter.

Sheep and goats of different ages may have to be killed on-farm for purposes other than slaughter (where slaughter is defined as killing for human consumption) either individually (i.e. on-farm killing of unproductive, injured or terminally ill animals) or on a large scale (i.e. depopulation for disease control purposes and for other situations, such as environmental contamination and disaster management) outside the slaughterhouses. The purpose of this opinion was to assess the hazards and welfare consequences associated with the on-farm killing of sheep and goats. The whole killing procedure was divided into Phase 1 (pre-killing) - that included the processes (i) handling and moving the animals to the killing place and (ii) restraint of the animals before application of the killing methods and Phase 2 - that included stunning and killing of the animals. The killing methods for sheep and goats were grouped into three categories: (1) mechanical, (2) electrical and (3) lethal injection. Welfare consequences that sheep and goats may experience during each process were identified (e.g. handling stress, restriction of movements and tissue lesions during restraint) and animal-based measures (ABMs) to assess them were proposed. During application of the killing method, sheep and goats will experience pain and fear if they are ineffectively stunned or if they recover consciousness. ABMs related to the state of consciousness can be used to indirectly assess pain and fear. Flowcharts including ABMs for consciousness specific to each killing method were included in the opinion. Possible welfare hazards were identified for each process, together with their origin and related preventive and corrective measures. Outcome tables linking hazards, welfare consequences, ABMs, origins, preventive and corrective measures were developed for each process. Mitigation measures to minimise welfare consequences were proposed.

The use of high expansion foam for stunning and killing pigs and poultry.

The EFSA Panel on Animal Health and Welfare (AHAW) was asked to deliver a scientific opinion on the use of high-expansion foam for stunning and killing pigs and poultry. A dossier was provided by the applicant as the basis for an assessment of the extent to which the method is able to provide a level of animal welfare at least equivalent to that ensured by the currently allowed methods for pigs and poultry. According to legislation, to be approved in the EU, new stunning methods must ensure (1) the absence of pain, distress or suffering until the onset of unconsciousness, and (2) that the animal remains unconscious until death. An ad hoc Working Group set up by EFSA performed the assessment as follows: (1) The data provided were checked against the criteria laid down in the EFSA Guidance (EFSA, 2018), and was found to partially fulfil those criteria; (2) extensive literature search; (3) data extraction for quantitative assessment; (4) qualitative exercise based on non-formal expert elicitation. The assessment led to conclude that it is more likely than not (certainty > 50%-100%) that high-expansion foam for stunning and killing pigs and poultry, named NEFS in container (Nitrogen Expansion Foam Stunning in container), provides a level of welfare at least equivalent to one or more of the currently allowed methods listed in Annex I of Council Regulation (EC) No 1099/2009. The overall assessment of EFSA is valid only under the technical conditions described in this Opinion for laying hens, broiler chickens of all age and pigs weighing 15-41 kg in situations other than slaughter. The overall assessment of EFSA is that NEFS can be suitable for depopulation using containers for pig and poultry farms respecting the technical conditions and the categories and types of animals defined in this Scientific Opinion.

Rift Valley fever in Namibia, 2010.

During May-July 2010 in Namibia, outbreaks of Rift Valley fever were reported to the National Veterinary Service. Analysis of animal specimens confirmed virus circulation on 7 farms. Molecular characterization showed that all outbreaks were caused by a strain of Rift Valley fever virus closely related to virus strains responsible for outbreaks in South Africa during 2009-2010.

Special Issue "SARS-CoV-2: Epidemiology and Pathogenesis": Editorial.

Since its emergence in 2019 in Wuhan City, Hubei Province, China, SARS-CoV-2 has spread across hundreds of countries and all continents [...].

Insights for brucellosis eradication in Italy through a model-based spread evaluation in grazing livestock - Sicily case study.

Brucellosis is one of the world's major zoonotic pathogens and is responsible for enormous economic losses as well as considerable human morbidity in endemic areas. Definitive control of human brucellosis requires control of brucellosis in livestock through practical solutions that can be easily applied to the field. In Italy, brucellosis remains endemic in several southern provinces, particularly in Sicily Region. The purpose of this paper is to describe the developed brucellosis model and its applications, trying to reproduce as faithfully as possible the complex transmission process of brucellosis accounting for the mixing of grazing animals. The model focuses on the contaminated environment rather than on the infected animal, uses real data from the main grazing areas of the Sicily Region, and aims to identify the best control options for minimizing the spread (and the prevalence) and to reach the eradication within the concerned areas. Simulation results confirmed the efficacy of an earlier application of the controls, showed the control should take place 30 days after going to pasture, and the culling time being negligible. Moreover, results highlighted the importance of the timing of both births and grazing pastures (and their interaction) more than other factors. As these factors are region­specific, the study encourages the adoption of different and new eradication tools, tuned on the grazing and commercial behavior of each region. This study will be further extended to improve the model's adaptability to the real world, with the purpose of making the model an operational tool able to help decision makers in accelerating brucellosis eradication in Italy.

SARS-CoV-2 in animals: susceptibility of animal species, risk for animal and public health, monitoring, prevention and control.

The epidemiological situation of SARS-CoV-2 in humans and animals is continually evolving. To date, animal species known to transmit SARS-CoV-2 are American mink, raccoon dog, cat, ferret, hamster, house mouse, Egyptian fruit bat, deer mouse and white-tailed deer. Among farmed animals, American mink have the highest likelihood to become infected from humans or animals and further transmit SARS-CoV-2. In the EU, 44 outbreaks were reported in 2021 in mink farms in seven MSs, while only six in 2022 in two MSs, thus representing a decreasing trend. The introduction of SARS-CoV-2 into mink farms is usually via infected humans; this can be controlled by systematically testing people entering farms and adequate biosecurity. The current most appropriate monitoring approach for mink is the outbreak confirmation based on suspicion, testing dead or clinically sick animals in case of increased mortality or positive farm personnel and the genomic surveillance of virus variants. The genomic analysis of SARS-CoV-2 showed mink-specific clusters with a potential to spill back into the human population. Among companion animals, cats, ferrets and hamsters are those at highest risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection, which most likely originates from an infected human, and which has no or very low impact on virus circulation in the human population. Among wild animals (including zoo animals), mostly carnivores, great apes and white-tailed deer have been reported to be naturally infected by SARS-CoV-2. In the EU, no cases of infected wildlife have been reported so far. Proper disposal of human waste is advised to reduce the risks of spill-over of SARS-CoV-2 to wildlife. Furthermore, contact with wildlife, especially if sick or dead, should be minimised. No specific monitoring for wildlife is recommended apart from testing hunter-harvested animals with clinical signs or found-dead. Bats should be monitored as a natural host of many coronaviruses.

Welfare of broilers on farm.

This Scientific Opinion considers the welfare of domestic fowl (Gallus gallus) related to the production of meat (broilers) and includes the keeping of day-old chicks, broiler breeders, and broiler chickens. Currently used husbandry systems in the EU are described. Overall, 19 highly relevant welfare consequences (WCs) were identified based on severity, duration and frequency of occurrence: 'bone lesions', 'cold stress', 'gastro-enteric disorders', 'group stress', 'handling stress', 'heat stress', 'isolation stress', 'inability to perform comfort behaviour', 'inability to perform exploratory or foraging behaviour', 'inability to avoid unwanted sexual behaviour', 'locomotory disorders', 'prolonged hunger', 'prolonged thirst', 'predation stress', 'restriction of movement', 'resting problems', 'sensory under- and overstimulation', 'soft tissue and integument damage' and 'umbilical disorders'. These WCs and their animal-based measures (ABMs) that can identify them are described in detail. A variety of hazards related to the different husbandry systems were identified as well as ABMs for assessing the different WCs. Measures to prevent or correct the hazards and/or mitigate each of the WCs are listed. Recommendations are provided on quantitative or qualitative criteria to answer specific questions on the welfare of broilers and related to genetic selection, temperature, feed and water restriction, use of cages, light, air quality and mutilations in breeders such as beak trimming, de-toeing and comb dubbing. In addition, minimal requirements (e.g. stocking density, group size, nests, provision of litter, perches and platforms, drinkers and feeders, of covered veranda and outdoor range) for an enclosure for keeping broiler chickens (fast-growing, slower-growing and broiler breeders) are recommended. Finally, 'total mortality', 'wounds', 'carcass condemnation' and 'footpad dermatitis' are proposed as indicators for monitoring at slaughter the welfare of broilers on-farm.

Species which may act as vectors or reservoirs of diseases covered by the Animal Health Law: Listed pathogens of molluscs.

Vector or reservoir species of five mollusc diseases listed in the Animal Health Law were identified, based on evidence generated through an extensive literature review, to support a possible updating of Regulation (EU) 2018/1882. Mollusc species on or in which Mikrocytos mackini, Perkinsus marinus, Bonamia exitiosa, Bonamia ostreae and Marteilia refringens were detected, in the field or during experiments, were classified as reservoir species with different levels of certainty depending on the diagnostic tests used. Where experimental evidence indicated transmission of the pathogen from a studied species to another known susceptible species, this studied species was classified as a vector species. Although the quantification of the risk of spread of the pathogens by the vectors or reservoir species was not part of the terms of reference, such risks do exist for the vector species, since transmission from infected vector species to susceptible species was proven. Where evidence for transmission from infected molluscs was not found, these were defined as reservoir. Nonetheless, the risk of the spread of the pathogens from infected reservoir species cannot be excluded. Evidence identifying conditions that may prevent transmission by vectors or reservoir mollusc species during transport was collected from scientific literature. It was concluded that it is very likely to almost certain (90-100%) that M. mackini, P. marinus, B. exitiosa B. ostreae and M. refringens will remain infective at any possible transport condition. Therefore, vector or reservoir species that may have been exposed to these pathogens in an affected area in the wild or at aquaculture establishments or through contaminated water supply can possibly transmit these pathogens. For transmission of M. refringens, the presence of an intermediate host, a copepod, is necessary.

Species which may act as vectors or reservoirs of diseases covered by the Animal Health Law: Listed pathogens of crustaceans.

Vector or reservoir species of three diseases of crustaceans listed in the Animal Health Law were identified based on evidence generated through an extensive literature review, to support a possible updating of Regulation (EU) 2018/1882. Crustacean species on or in which Taura syndrome virus (TSV), Yellow head virus (YHV) or White spot syndrome virus (WSSV) were identified, in the field or during experiments, were classified as reservoir species with different levels of certainty depending on the diagnostic tests used. Where experimental evidence indicated transmission of the pathogen from a studied species to another known susceptible species, the studied species was classified as vector species. Although the quantification of the risk of spread of the pathogens by the vectors or reservoir species was not part of the terms of reference, such risks do exist for the vector species, since transmission from infected vector species to susceptible species was proven. Where evidence for transmission from infected crustaceans was not found, these were defined as reservoirs. Nonetheless, the risk of the spread of the pathogens from infected reservoir species cannot be excluded. Evidence identifying conditions that may prevent transmission by vectors during transport was collected from scientific literature. It was concluded that it is very likely to almost certain (90-100%) that WSSV, TSV and YHV will remain infective at any possible transport condition. Therefore, vector or reservoir species that may have been exposed to these pathogens in an affected area in the wild or aquaculture establishments or by water supply can possibly transmit WSSV, TSV and YHV.