Risk Factors Associated with Intensive Care Admission in Children with Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2-Related Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome (MIS-C) in Latin America: A Multicenter Observational Study of the REKAMLATINA Network.

Background: Multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) associated with coronavirus disease 2019 varies widely in its presentation and severity, with low mortality in high-income countries. In this study in 16 Latin American countries, we sought to characterize patients with MIS-C in the pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) compared with those hospitalized on the general wards and analyze the factors associated with severity, outcomes, and treatment received. Study Design: An observational ambispective cohort study was conducted including children 1 month to 18 years old in 84 hospitals from the REKAMLATINA network from January 2020 to June 2022. Results: A total of 1239 children with MIS-C were included. The median age was 6.5 years (IQR 2.5-10.1). Eighty-four percent (1043/1239) were previously healthy. Forty-eight percent (590/1239) were admitted to the PICU. These patients had more myocardial dysfunction (20% vs 4%; P < 0.01) with no difference in the frequency of coronary abnormalities (P = 0.77) when compared to general ward subjects. Of the children in the PICU, 83.4% (494/589) required vasoactive drugs, and 43.4% (256/589) invasive mechanical ventilation, due to respiratory failure and pneumonia (57% vs 32%; P = 0.01). On multivariate analysis, the factors associated with the need for PICU transfer were age over 6 years (aOR 1.76 95% CI 1.25-2.49), shock (aOR 7.06 95% CI 5.14-9.80), seizures (aOR 2.44 95% CI 1.14-5.36), thrombocytopenia (aOR 2.43 95% CI 1.77-3.34), elevated C-reactive protein (aOR 1.89 95% CI 1.29-2.79), and chest x-ray abnormalities (aOR 2.29 95% CI 1.67-3.13). The overall mortality was 4.8%. Conclusions: Children with MIS-C who have the highest risk of being admitted to a PICU in Latin American countries are those over age six, with shock, seizures, a more robust inflammatory response, and chest x-ray abnormalities. The mortality rate is five times greater when compared with high-income countries, despite a high proportion of patients receiving adequate treatment.

Carbapenem resistance in Enterobacterales bloodstream infections among children with cancer or post-haematopoietic stem cell transplant: a retrospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Risk factors for carbapenem resistance in Enterobacterales bloodstream infections among children with cancer or post-HSCT have not been thoroughly explored. METHODS: All children with cancer or post-HSCT who developed Enterobacterales bloodstream infections in two cancer referral centres in major Colombian cities between 2012 and 2021 were retrospectively examined. When the infection episode occurred, carbapenem resistance mechanisms were evaluated according to the available methods. Data were divided in a training set (80%) and a test set (20%). Three internally validated carbapenem-resistant Enterobacterales (CRE) prediction models were created: a multivariate logistic regression model, and two data mining techniques. Model performances were evaluated by calculating the average of the AUC, sensitivity, specificity and predictive values. RESULTS: A total of 285 Enterobacterales bloodstream infection episodes (229 carbapenem susceptible and 56 carbapenem resistant) occurred [median (IQR) age, 9 (3.5-14) years; 57% male]. The risk of CRE was 2.1 times higher when the infection was caused by Klebsiella spp. and 5.8 times higher when a carbapenem had been used for ≥3 days in the previous month. A model including these two predictive variables had a discriminatory performance of 77% in predicting carbapenem resistance. The model had a specificity of 97% and a negative predictive value of 81%, with low sensitivity and positive predictive value. CONCLUSIONS: Even in settings with high CRE prevalence, these two variables can help early identification of patients in whom CRE-active agents are unnecessary and highlight the importance of strengthening antibiotic stewardship strategies directed at preventing carbapenem overuse.

Clinical Presentation and Outcomes of Kawasaki Disease in Children from Latin America: A Multicenter Observational Study from the REKAMLATINA Network.

OBJECTIVES: To describe the clinical presentation, management, and outcomes of Kawasaki disease (KD) in Latin America and to evaluate early prognostic indicators of coronary artery aneurysm (CAA). STUDY DESIGN: An observational KD registry-based study was conducted in 64 participating pediatric centers across 19 Latin American countries retrospectively between January 1, 2009, and December 31, 2013, and prospectively from June 1, 2014, to May 31, 2017. Demographic and initial clinical and laboratory data were collected. Logistic regression incorporating clinical factors and maximum coronary artery z-score at initial presentation (between 10 days before and 5 days after intravenous immunoglobulin [IVIG]) was used to develop a prognostic model for CAA during follow-up (>5 days after IVIG). RESULTS: Of 1853 patients with KD, delayed admission (>10 days after fever onset) occurred in 16%, 25% had incomplete KD, and 11% were resistant to IVIG. Among 671 subjects with reported coronary artery z-score during follow-up (median: 79 days; IQR: 36, 186), 21% had CAA, including 4% with giant aneurysms. A simple prognostic model utilizing only a maximum coronary artery z-score ≥2.5 at initial presentation was optimal to predict CAA during follow-up (area under the curve: 0.84; 95% CI: 0.80, 0.88). CONCLUSION: From our Latin American population, coronary artery z-score ≥2.5 at initial presentation was the most important prognostic factor preceding CAA during follow-up. These results highlight the importance of early echocardiography during the initial presentation of KD.

Association between bacterial resistance profile and the development of intra-abdominal abscesses in pediatric patients with perforated appendicitis: cohort study.

PURPOSE: The objective of this study was to determine the association between the presence of a microorganism resistant to the antibiotic used in empirical therapy and the development of intra-abdominal abscesses in children with perforated appendicitis. METHODS: A prospective cohort study was conducted in patients under 18 years of age who underwent laparoscopic appendectomy between November 1, 2019, and September 30, 2020, in whom perforated appendicitis was documented intraoperatively. Peritoneal fluid samples were taken for bacteria culture purposes, and clinical and microbiological data were collected from all patients. RESULTS: A total of 232 patients were included in the study. The most isolated microorganisms were Escherichia coli (80.14%) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (7.45%). In addition, 5.31% of E. coli isolates were classified as ESBL-producing organisms. No association was found between a germ resistant to empiric antimicrobial therapy and the development of a postoperative intra-abdominal abscess. Multivariate analysis showed that being a high-risk patient on admission (OR 2.89 (p = 0.01)) was associated with the development of intra-abdominal abscesses postoperatively. CONCLUSION: E. coli was the most commonly isolated microorganism, with a low rate of ESBL-producing isolates. No association between resistance and risk of postoperative intra-abdominal abscess was found. However, it was identified that being a high-risk patient on admission was associated with this complication. TYPE OF STUDY: Prognosis study. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level I.

Recommendations for modernizing infant vaccination schedules with combination vaccines in Colombia and Peru.

The objective of this article was to consider the vaccination challenges in Colombia and Peru and the role of pediatric combination vaccines in overcoming these challenges. Barriers to including new vaccines with more antigens remain apparent in parts of these countries, where vaccine-preventable diseases in infants continue to be a major problem. The challenges include the heterogeneity of vaccine coverage within each country and in neighboring countries, which can contribute to poor rates of vaccination coverage; the adverse impact of the inward migration of unvaccinated individuals, which has favored the re-emergence of vaccine-preventable diseases; vaccine shortages; and the impact of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic and the associated shifts in health care resources. To improve the coverage of pediatric vaccines in Colombia and Peru, it will be necessary to ensure the widespread integration into vaccine schedules of combination vaccines containing diphtheria, tetanus, acellular pertussis, inactivated poliovirus, Haemophilus influenzae type b and hepatitis B antigens with a three-dose primary series delivered at 2, 4 and 6 months of age followed by a booster at 18 months of age. Such vaccines play important roles in preventing diphtheria, tetanus and pertussis; eradicating polio; and providing boosting against H. influenzae type b.

El objetivo de este artículo es considerar los desafíos que se enfrentan en Colombia y Perú con respecto a la vacunación y el papel de las vacunas combinadas pediátricas para superar estos desafíos. Los obstáculos para incluir vacunas nuevas con más antígenos siguen siendo evidentes en algunos lugares de estos países, donde las enfermedades prevenibles por vacunación en menores de 1 año continúan siendo un grave problema. Entre los desafíos se incluye la heterogeneidad de la cobertura de vacunación en cada país y en los países vecinos, lo que puede contribuir con que se registren tasas bajas de cobertura de vacunación; el impacto adverso de la migración interna de personas no vacunadas, lo que ha favorecido la reaparición de enfermedades prevenibles por vacunación; la escasez de vacunas, y el impacto de la pandemia del coronavirus de tipo 2 causante del síndrome respiratorio agudo grave (SARS-CoV-2) y los consiguientes cambios en los recursos de atención médica. Para mejorar la cobertura de las vacunas pediátricas en Colombia y Perú será necesario integrar de manera generalizada en los calendarios de vacunación vacunas combinadas con antígenos de difteria, tétanos, tos ferina acelular, poliovirus inactivados, Haemophilus influenzae tipo b y hepatitis B con una serie primaria de tres dosis administradas a los 2, 4 y 6 meses de edad, seguida de un refuerzo a los 18 meses de edad. Esas vacunas desempeñan un papel esencial en la prevención de la difteria, el tétanos y la tos ferina; la erradicación de la polio; y el refuerzo contra H. influenzae tipo b.

O objetivo deste artigo foi avaliar os desafios da vacinação na Colômbia e no Peru e o papel das vacinas pediátricas combinadas na superação de tais desafios. Os obstáculos para incluir novas vacinas com mais antígenos permanecem visíveis em partes desses países, onde doenças imunopreveníveis em lactentes continuam a ser um grande problema. Os desafios incluem a heterogeneidade da cobertura vacinal dentro de cada país e nos países vizinhos, o que pode contribuir para baixas taxas de cobertura vacinal; o impacto adverso da migração interna de pessoas não vacinadas, o que favoreceu o ressurgimento de doenças imunopreveníveis; a escassez de vacinas; e o impacto da pandemia de síndrome respiratória aguda grave do coronavírus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) e mudanças relacionadas nos recursos de atenção à saúde. Para melhorar a cobertura das vacinas pediátricas na Colômbia e no Peru, será necessário assegurar sua integração generalizada em esquemas de vacinas combinadas contendo antígenos de difteria, tétano, pertussis acelular, poliovírus inativado, Haemophilus influenzae tipo B e hepatite B, com uma série primária de três doses aplicadas aos 2, 4 e 6 meses de idade seguidas de um reforço aos 18 meses de idade. Tais vacinas desempenham papéis importantes na prevenção da difteria, tétano e coqueluche; na erradicação da poliomielite; e no reforço contra H. influenzae tipo b.

Correlation between the results of cultures and the molecular BIOFIRE® joint infection panel in a cohort of pediatric patients with bone and joint infections in Bogotá, Colombia.

Introduction: Bone and Joint Infections (BJI) have high morbidity. Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has increased. Culture-based diagnosis has difficult to recovering fastidious bacteria and detecting polymicrobial infections, molecular methods offer a promising improvement for the diagnosis of BJI with reduced time to result. The aim of the study was to determine the correlation between culture results and the Biofire joint infection panel (BJIP) in a cohort of pediatric patients with BJI. Materials and methods: Descriptive study. Patients admitted with probable o confirmed BJI between July 1, 2019 and February 28, 2021 at HOMI. Blood cultures, synovial and bone fluid samples were taken. Samples were kept at -70 °C. On September 2022, the panel was performed. Results: 32 patients were included. The average age was 83m (RIQ: 32-145). 23 (71.8%) patients had a positive culture. The most frequent microorganism were S. aureus 19 (83%), 11/19 (57.9%) Staphylococci isolates were MRSA. 24/32 (75%) were positive by panel, 20 positive detections were concordant with culture, there were 6 additional isolates by panel (2 S. aureus, 2 S. pyogenes, 1 K. kingae and 1 C. albicans), three microorganisms were isolated in culture but not in the panel. (2 S. aureus and 1 S. agalactiae). Two patients with coinfection were detected. All MRSA were detected by culture and panel. In 26 (81.3%) patients the etiology was documented by any method. Conclusion: These results showed a moderate level of agreement between BJIP and culture (κ = 0.47). The panel allowed the detection of fastidious bacteria including K. kingae and polymicrobial samples. There was a very good level of agreement between the panel and culture for the MRSA detection (κ = 1).

Sentinel surveillance in bacterial pneumonia in children under 5 years old in a fourth-level pediatric hospital in Colombia 2016-2022.

Objectives: Sentinel surveillance for bacterial pneumonia (SSBP) allows the monitoring of immunopreventable diseases. The results of the SSBP carried out at HOMI, Fundación Hospital pediátrico de la Misericordia, are presented. Methods: The daily active search for cases was carried out in accordance with the protocol of the Pan American Health Organization from January 2016 to December 2022. Results: There were 6970 suspected cases of bacterial pneumonia (BP). Among the 3048 (43.7%) patients with probable BP, cultures were obtained from 2777 (91.1%), and BP was confirmed in 190 (6.2%). The causes were Streptococcus pneumoniae in 98 (51.6%) cases, Spn19A in 47 (48%), Spn3 in 16 (16%), and Spn6C in 4 (4%). Haemophilus influenzae was found in 32 (16.8%) cases: non-typeable H. influenzae in 20 (62.5%), H. influenzae type b in five (15.6%), and H. influenzae type a in two (6.2%). Other bacteria were found in 60 (31.6%) cases. A total of 51.6% and 42.9% of patients with S. pneumoniae had decreased sensitivity to penicillin and ceftriaxone, respectively. Conclusions: The serotypes included in the conjugate vaccines for pneumococcus and H. influenzae b decreased significantly, and serotype turnover was observed. Among the S. pneumoniae cases, Spn19A, Spn3, and Spn6C were the most frequent serotypes and associated with multiresistance. The SSBP allows us to determine the clinical behavior of the disease and to detect the serotypes emergence.

Severe adenovirus infection outbreak in Colombia: Experience from a tertiary pediatric hospital in 2022. / Brote de adenovirus grave en Colombia: experiencia de un hospital pediátrico de tercer nivel en 2022

Introduction. During the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, many countries experienced decreased respiratory virus circulation, followed by an out-of-season outbreak. In a pediatric hospital in Colombia, we observed a surge in severe adenovirus infections, leading to concerns about the impact of eased public health restrictions and immune debt in children under five years old. Objective. To describe the clinical characteristics of patients with severe adenovirus infection in a pediatric hospital in Colombia. Materials and methods. We reviewed the data of 227 patients with severe adenovirus infection at the Fundación Hospital Pediátrico La Misericordia. Results. A total of 196 patients were included in this study. The median age was two years, and 62% were male. Adenoviruses were isolated from all patients' samples. Ninetyseven percent were admitted to the pediatric intensive care unit, 94% required respiratory support, and the in-hospital lethality rate was 11%. Conclusion. In 2022, there was an outbreak of severe adenovirus infections, affecting mainly children under five years of age, with higher-than-usual mortality.

Introducción. Durante la pandemia por SARS-CoV-2, muchos países evidenciaron una disminución en la circulación de virus respiratorios, seguida por un brote fuera de la temporada esperada. En un hospital de Colombia, se observó un aumento en los casos de infección grave por adenovirus, lo cual generó preocupación sobre el impacto que tuvo la disminución de los cuidados establecidos durante pandemia y la posible deuda inmunológica en niños menores de cinco años. Objetivo. Describir las características clínicas de los pacientes con infección grave por adenovirus en un hospital pediátrico de Colombia. Materiales y métodos. Se revisaron 227 pacientes con infección grave por adenovirus en la Fundación Hospital Pediátrico La Misericordia, desde el 1° de enero hasta el 31 de diciembre de 2022. Resultados. El estudio incluyó 196 casos. La edad media de los pacientes fue de dos años y el 62 % eran de sexo masculino. Los adenovirus se aislaron a partir de las muestras de todos los pacientes. El 97 % de los pacientes ingresó a la unidad de cuidados intensivos, el 94 % requirió soporte ventilatorio y la tasa de mortalidad fue del 11 %. Conclusiones. En el 2022 hubo un brote de adenovirus que afectó principalmente a los niños menores de cinco años, con una mortalidad mayor a lo reportado con anterioridad en Colombia.

Serotype distribution, clinical characteristics, and antimicrobial resistance of pediatric invasive pneumococcal disease in Colombia during PCV10 mass vaccination (2017-2022).

Introduction: Invasive Pneumococcal Disease (IPD) causes significant morbidity and mortality in children under 5 y. Colombia introduced PCV10 vaccination in 2012, and the Neumocolombia network has been monitoring IPD in pediatric patients since 2008. Materials and methods: This study is a secondary analysis of a prospective cohort involving pediatric patients with IPD admitted to 17 hospitals in Colombia, from January 1st, 2017, to December 31st, 2022. We present data on serotypes (Spn), clinical characteristics, and resistance patterns. Results: We report 530 patients, 215 (40.5%) were younger than 24 months. Among these, 344 cases (64.7%) presented with pneumonia, 95 (17.9%) with primary bacteremia, 53 (10%) with meningitis, 6 (1.1%) had pneumonia and meningitis, and 32 (6%) had other IPD diagnosis. The median hospital stay was 12 days (RIQ 8-14 days), and 268 (50.6%) were admitted to the ICU, of whom 60 (11.3%) died. Serotyping was performed in 298 (56.1%). The most frequent serotypes were Spn19A (51.3%), Spn6C (7.7%), Spn3 (6.7%), Spn6A (3.6%), and Spn14 (3.6%). Of 495 (93%) isolates with known susceptibility, 46 (9.2%) were meningeal (M) and 449 (90.7%) non-meningeal (NM). Among M isolates, 41.3% showed resistance to penicillin, and 21.7% decreased susceptibility to ceftriaxone. For NM isolates, 28.2% had decreased susceptibility to penicilin, and 24.2% decreased susceptibility to ceftriaxone. Spn19A showed the highest resistant to penicillin at 47% and was linked to multiresistance. Conclusion: The prevalence of PCV10-included serotypes decreased, while serotypes 19A and 6C increased, with Spn19A being associated with multiresistance. These findings had played a crucial role in the decision made by Colombia to modify its immunization schedule by switching to PCV13 in July 2022.

Multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children across 16 Latin American countries: A multicenter study from the REKAMLATINA Network.

Objectives: Our aim was to describe the epidemiology and outcomes of multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) in Latin America. Methods: We conducted an observational, retrospective, and prospective multicenter study that gathered information from 84 participating centers across 16 Latin American countries between August 1, 2020 and June 30, 2022. Results: Of the 1239 reported children with MIS-C, 84.18% were previously healthy. The most frequent clinical manifestation in our studied population was abdominal pain (N = 804, 64.9%), followed by conjunctival injection (N = 784, 63.3%). The median duration of fever at the time of hospital admission was 5 days and a significant number of subjects required admission to an intensive care unit (N = 589, 47.5%). Most of the subjects (N = 1096, 88.7%) were treated with intravenous immunoglobulin, whereas 76.7% (N = 947) were treated with steroids, of whom 10.6% (N = 100) did not receive intravenous immunoglobulin. The death rate attributed to MIS-C was 4.88%, with a rate of 3.39% for those initially diagnosed with MIS-C and 8.85% for those whose admission diagnosis was not MIS-C (P <0.001, odds ratio 2.76, 95% confidence interval 1.6-4.6). Conclusions: One of the most significant findings from our study was the death rate, especially in those not initially diagnosed with MIS-C, in whom the rate was higher. This highlights the importance of increasing awareness and making an earlier diagnosis of MIS-C in Latin America.

Epidemiological and microbiological characteristics of S. aureus pediatric infections in Colombia 2018-2021, a national multicenter study (Staphylored Colombia).

Background: Staphylococcus aureus infections are a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in pediatric populations worldwide. The Staphylo Research Network conducted an extensive study on pediatric patients across Colombia from 2018 to 2021. The aim of this study was to describe the epidemiological and microbiological characteristics of S. aureus in this patient group. Methods: We analyzed S. aureus isolates from WHONET-reporting centers. An "event" was a positive culture isolation in a previously negative individual after 2 weeks. We studied center characteristics, age distribution, infection type, and antibiotic susceptibilities, comparing methicillin sensitive (MSSA) and resistant S. aureus (MRSA) isolates. Results: Isolates from 20 centers across 7 Colombian cities were included. Most centers (80%) served both adults and children, with 55% offering oncology services and 85% having a PICU. We registered 8,157 S. aureus culture isolations from 5,384 events (3,345 MSSA and 1,961 MRSA) in 4,821 patients, with a median age of 5 years. Blood (26.2%) and skin/soft tissue (18.6%) were the most common infection sources. Most isolates per event remained susceptible to oxacillin (63.2%), clindamycin (94.3%), and TMP-SMX (98.3%). MRSA prevalence varied by city (<0.001), with slightly higher rates observed in exclusively pediatric hospitals. In contrast, the MRSA rate was somewhat lower in centers with Antimicrobial Stewardship Program (ASP). MRSA was predominantly isolated from osteoarticular infections and multiple foci, while MSSA was more frequently associated with recurrent infections compared to MRSA. Conclusions: This is the largest study of pediatric S. aureus infections in Colombia. We found MSSA predominance, but resistance have important regional variations. S. aureus remains susceptible to other commonly used antibiotics such as TMP-SMX and clindamycin. Ongoing monitoring of S. aureus infections is vital for understanding their behavior in children. Prospective studies within the Staphylored LATAM are underway for a more comprehensive clinical and genetic characterization.

Multilevel analysis identifying the factors associated with RSV detection in infants admitted for viral bronchiolitis in the era of the COVID-19 pandemic.

OBJECTIVES: To identify factors independently associated with respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) detection in infants admitted for viral bronchiolitis during 3 consecutive years, before and during the COVID-19 pandemic, in Bogota, Colombia, a middle-income country with a subtropical highland climate. METHODS: An analytical cross-sectional study was conducted before and during the COVID-19 pandemic, including patients with a diagnosis of viral bronchiolitis admitted to all the hospitals of the city between January 2019 and November 2021. We evaluated a set of a priori-selected predictor variables that included individual, healthcare system, meteorological, air pollutant, and COVID-19 variables. Since the variables analyzed are hierarchical in nature, multilevel modeling was used to identify factors independently associated with detection of RSV as the causative agent of viral bronchiolitis. RESULTS: A total of 13,177 patients were included in the study. After controlling for potential confounders, it was found that age (odds ratio [OR] 0.86; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.76-0.97), a third level of medical care institution (OR 3.05; 95% CI 1.61-5.76), temperature (OR 1.60; 95% CI 1.24-2.07), rainfall (OR 1.003, 95% CI 1.001, 1.005), NO2 (OR 0.97; 95% CI 0.95-0.99), CO (OR 0.99; 95% CI 0.99-0.99), and COVID-19 pandemic period (OR 0.84, 95% CI 0.71-0.99) were independently associated with RSV detection in our sample of patients. CONCLUSIONS: The identified factors associated with RSV detection provide additional scientific evidence that may be useful in the development of specific interventions aimed at ameliorating or preventing the impact of RSV in Bogota and probably other similar low- to middle-income countries in high-risk infants.

Invasive Pneumococcal Disease Characterization in Adults and Subgroups aged < 60 years and ≥ 60 years in Bogota, Colombia.

Background: There is scarce information on the burden of invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) among adults in low- and middle-income countries. This study aimed to describe the clinical outcomes and microbiological characteristics associated with IPD in adults and subgroups aged 18-59 years and ≥60 years in Colombia. Methods: A retrospective chart review study was conducted in five institutions of Bogotá from January 2011 to December 2017. Analyses were carried out for overall population and stratified by age group (18-59; ≥ 60 years). Results: There were 169 IPD cases; median age was 58 years, 51.5% were male, and 80.5% had at least one comorbidity. Bacteremic pneumonia was the most common presentation (63.9%). The median length of hospital stay was 12 days with high healthcare resource utilization (HCRU): 58.6% required ICU and 53.3% inotropic support. Overall case-fatality rate (CFR) was 41.4%. Clinical outcomes were worse in patients ≥60 years old with significantly higher CFR and HCRU (ICU admission, mechanical ventilation, and inotropic support) compared to those aged 18-59 years. The most frequent serotypes were 3, 6 A/C, 14, and 19A. The sensitivity to penicillin in meningitis and non-meningitis isolates were 75% and 89.1% respectively. Conclusions: IPD was associated with a substantial burden in adults and worse clinical outcomes and HCRU in older adults in Colombia. Surveillance data combined with clinical outcomes have the potential to inform age-based pneumococcal vaccination policies.

Differences Between Methicillin-susceptible Versus Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus Infections in Pediatrics: Multicenter Cohort Study Conducted in Bogotá, Colombia, 2014-2018.

BACKGROUND: The epidemiology of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and methicillin-susceptible S. aureus (MSSA) has changed in recent years. The present article is intended to establish differences between clinical, laboratory and imaging findings and outcomes of MSSA and MRSA infections, as well as among subgroups of infection such as skin and soft tissue infection, osteoarticular, bacteremia or pneumonia in a pediatric population from Bogota, Colombia. METHODS: Retrospective cohort study using clinical records of patients under 18 years of age treated at the participating centers in Bogota, Colombia, between 2014 and 2018. The first positive S. aureus culture was studied. MSSA and MRSA were compared. The χ2 test, Fisher exact test, and Kruskal-Wallis test were calculated, and the statistical significance was presented using the difference and its 95% CI. RESULTS: Five hundred fifty-one patients were included; 211 (38%) corresponded to MRSA and 340 (62%) to MSSA for a total of 703 cultures. A significantly higher probability of having an MSSA infection than MRSA was found in patients with previous heart disease (3.3% vs. 0.5%), neurologic disease (5.9% vs. 2.5%), recent major surgeries (11% vs. 5%) or who has an implanted device (11% vs. 4%). In contrast, in severe MRSA infections (bacteremia, osteoarticular infections and pneumonia), a higher rate of complications was seen (admission to the pediatric intensive care unit, mechanical ventilation and vasoactive support), and in osteoarticular MRSA, more than 1 surgery per case was seen (89% vs. 61%). Laboratory results and mortality were similar. CONCLUSIONS: MRSA was associated with a more severe course in bacteremia, osteoarticular infections and pneumonia. Some classical risk factors associated with MRSA infections were found to be related to MSSA. In general, with the exception of skin and soft tissue infection, there was an increased risk of pediatric intensive care unit admission and mechanical and inotropic support with MRSA in a pediatric population.

Changes in the incidence of acute bacterial meningitis caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae and the implications of serotype replacement in children in Colombia after mass vaccination with PCV10.

Introduction: Acute bacterial meningitis (ABM) is a public health problem. The disease has reemerged after the introduction of pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCVs) due to an increase in serotypes that are not covered. The objective was to determine the changes in the disease incidence before and after the introduction of the 10-valent vaccine (PCV10) in Colombia. Methods: This multicenter study was conducted in 17 hospitals in Colombia. Data were collected from January 2008 to December 2019 in 10 hospitals in Bogotá and from January 2017 to December 2019 in seven hospitals in Cali, Medellín and Cartagena. The data were grouped into three periods: 2008-2011, 2012-2015, and 2016-2019. Results: Of the 706 cases of invasive pneumococcal disease, 81 (11.4%) corresponded to meningitis. The relative incidence in Bogotá in the first period was 0.6 per 100,000 patients ≤ 5 years, decreased to 0.4 per 100,000 patients ≤ 5 years in the second period and increased in the third period to 0.7 per 100,000 patients ≤ 5 years. Serotypes covered by PCV10 decreased from 75 to 9.1%, with Spn19A (31.8%) and Spn34 (13.6%) emerging in the third period. Increased resistance to penicillin (13 to 37%) and to ceftriaxone (5.9 to 16%) was due to the emergence of multidrug-resistant Spn19A. The total mortality rate was 23.5% and increased from 12 to 33%. Conclusions: ABM due to pneumococcus has high morbidity and mortality rates. Reemergence of the disease has been observed due to the inclusion of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for diagnosis and replacement of circulating serotypes after the introduction of PCV10, with an increase in Spn19A, which causes death and exhibits antimicrobial resistance. Continued surveillance is needed.

Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C) temporally related to COVID-19: the experience at a pediatric reference hospital in Colombia.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to describe the clinical characteristics and the different phenotypes of children with multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) temporally related to COVID-19 and to evaluate the risk conditions that favored a greater severity of the disease during a 12-month period at a pediatric reference hospital in Colombia. METHODS: A 12-month retrospective observational study of children under the age of 18 years who met criteria for MIS-C. RESULTS: A total of 28 children presented MIS-C criteria. The median age was 7 years. Other than fever (100%) (onset 4 days prior to admission), the most frequent clinical features were gastrointestinal (86%) and mucocutaneous (61%). Notably, 14 (50%) children had Kawasaki-like symptoms. The most frequent echocardiographic abnormalities were pericardial effusion (64%), valvular involvement (68%), ventricular dysfunction (39%), and coronary artery abnormalities (29%). In addition, 75% had lymphopenia. All had at least one abnormal coagulation test. Most received intravenous immunoglobulin (89%), glucocorticoids (82%), vasopressors (54%), and antibiotics (64%). Notably, 61% had a more severe form of the disease and were admitted to an intensive care unit (median 4 days, mean 6 days); the severity predictors were patients with the inflammatory/MIS-C phenotype (OR 26.5; 95%CI 1.40-503.7; p=0.029) and rash (OR 14.7; 95%CI 1.2-178.7; p=0.034). Two patients had macrophage activation syndrome. CONCLUSIONS: Coronary artery abnormalities, ventricular dysfunction, and intensive care unit admission were frequent, which needs to highlight the importance of early clinical suspicion.

Epidemiological characteristics and serotype distribution of culture-confirmed pediatric pneumococcal pneumonia before and after PCV 10 introduction, a multicenter study in Bogota, Colombia, 2008-2019.

BACKGROUND: Pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCVs) have decreased pneumonia in children. Colombia introduced mass vaccination with PCV10 in 2012. METHODS: Cases of pneumococcal pneumonia from 10 hospitals were included. Two periods were compared: pre-PCV10: 2008-2011 and post-PCV10: 2014-2019. The objective was to compare epidemiological and clinical characteristics before and after PCV10 vaccination. RESULTS: A total of 370 cases were included. Serotypes 1 (15, 11.2%) and 14 (33, 24.6%) were the most frequent in the pre-PCV10 period, with only 4 (3%) cases of serotype 19A and 1 case (0.7%) serotype 3. From the pre-PCV10 period to the post-PCV10 period, cases of serotypes 1 (6, 3.1%) and 14 (1, 7.8%) decreased, while cases of serotypes 19A (58, 30.2%), serotype 3 (32, 16.7%) and 6A (7, 3.6%) increased (p < 0.001); complicated pneumonia (CP) increased significantly (13.4% to 31.8%) (p < 0.001); hospitalizations increased from 8 (5.5-15) to 12 (7-22) days (p < 0.001); and the frequency of PICU admission increased from 32.8% to 51.6% (p = 0.001). The use of ampicillin-sulbactam (0.7% to 24%) and ceftriaxone/clindamycin (0.7% to 5.7%) increased in the post-PCV10 period. The duration of empirical antibiotic treatment was 7 (4-11) days in the pre-PCV10 period and increased to 10 (6-17) days (p < 0.001) in the post-PCV10 period. Lethality showed a slight nonsignificant increase (7.5% vs. 9.9%; p = 0.57) in the post-PCV10 period. CONCLUSIONS: PCV10 significantly decreased cases of serotypes 1 and 14, with an increase in cases of serotypes 19A, 3 and 6A, which were the predominant serotypes and had greater severity (e.g., admission to the PICU, CP and more resistance, with an increase in the use of broad-spectrum antibiotics and longer hospitalization) and subsequently included in PCV13. Current data support national and regional evidence on the importance of replacing PCV10 with a higher valence that includes 19A, such as PCV13, with the aim of reducing circulation, particularly of this serotype.

Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children in Western Countries? Decreasing Incidence as the Pandemic Progresses?: An Observational Multicenter International Cross-sectional Study.

BACKGROUND: SARS-CoV-2 variations as well as immune protection after previous infections and/or vaccination may have altered the incidence of multisystemic inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C). We aimed to report an international time-series analysis of the incidence of MIS-C to determine if there was a shift in the regions or countries included into the study. METHODS: This is a multicenter, international, cross-sectional study. We collected the MIS-C incidence from the participant regions and countries for the period July 2020 to November 2021. We assessed the ratio between MIS-C cases and COVID-19 pediatric cases in children <18 years diagnosed 4 weeks earlier (average time for the temporal association observed in this disease) for the study period. We performed a binomial regression analysis for 8 participating sites [Bogotá (Colombia), Chile, Costa Rica, Lazio (Italy), Mexico DF, Panama, The Netherlands and Catalonia (Spain)]. RESULTS: We included 904 cases of MIS-C, among a reference population of 17,906,432 children. We estimated a global significant decrease trend ratio in MIS-C cases/COVID-19 diagnosed cases in the previous month ( P < 0.001). When analyzing separately each of the sites, Chile and The Netherlands maintained a significant decrease trend ( P < 0.001), but this ratio was not statistically significant for the rest of sites. CONCLUSIONS: To our knowledge, this is the first international study describing a global reduction in the trend of the MIS-C incidence during the pandemic. COVID-19 vaccination and other factors possibly linked to the virus itself and/or community transmission may have played a role in preventing new MIS-C cases.

Etiology and Risk Factors for Admission to the Pediatric Intensive Care Unit in Children With Encephalitis in a Developing Country.

OBJECTIVE: To describe a cohort of pediatric patients with encephalitis and their risk factors for admission to the pediatric intensive care unit (PICU). STUDY DESIGN: Children (<18 years old), with encephalitis evaluated by conventional microbiology and syndromic, multiplex test in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) between July 2017 and July 2020, were recruited from 14 hospitals that comprise the Colombian Network of Encephalitis in Pediatrics. Multivariate analyses were used to evaluate risk factors associated with the need for PICU admission. RESULTS: Two hundred two children were included, of which 134 (66.3%) were male. The median age was 23 months (IQR 5.7-73.2). The main etiologies were bacteria (n = 55, 27%), unspecified viral encephalitis (n = 44, 22%) and enteroviruses (n = 27, 13%), with variations according to age group. Seventy-eight patients (38.6%) required management in the PICU. In multivariate analysis, factors associated with admission to the PICU were the presence of generalized seizures (OR 2.73; 95% CI: 1.82-4.11), status epilepticus (OR 3.28; 95% CI: 2.32-4.62) and low leukocyte counts in the CSF (OR 2.86; 95% CI: 1.47-5.57). Compared with enterovirus, bacterial etiology (OR 7.50; 95% CI: 1.0-56.72), herpes simplex encephalitis (OR 11.81; 95% CI: 1.44-96.64), autoimmune encephalitis (OR 22.55; 95% CI: 3.68-138.16) and other viral infections (OR 5.83; 95% CI: 1.09-31.20) increased the risk of PICU admission. CONCLUSIONS: Data from this national collaborative network of pediatric patients with encephalitis allow early identification of children at risk of needing advanced care and can guide the risk stratification of admission to the PICU.

Factors Associated With Hospitalization or Intensive Care Admission in Children With COVID-19 in Latin America.

Background: Limited data is available from low-middle and upper-middle income countries of the factors associated with hospitalization or admission to pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) for children with COVID-19. Objective: To describe the factors associated with hospitalization or PICU admission of children with COVID-19 in Latin America. Method: Multicenter, analytical, retrospective study of children reported from 10 different Latin American countries to the Latin-American Society of Pediatric Infectious Diseases (SLIPE-COVID) research network from June 1, 2020, and February 28, 2021. Outpatient or hospitalized children <18 years of age with COVID-19 confirmed by polymerase chain reaction or antigen detection from the nasopharynx were included. Children with multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) were excluded. Associations were assessed using univariate and multivariable logistic regression models. Results: A total of 1063 children with COVID-19 were included; 500 (47%) hospitalized, with 419 (84%) to the pediatric wards and 81 (16%) to the ICU. In multivariable analyses, age <1 year (Odds Ratio [OR] 1.78; 95% CI 1.08-2.94), native race (OR 5.40; 95% CI 2.13-13.69) and having a co-morbid condition (OR 5.3; 95% CI 3.10-9.15), were associated with hospitalization. Children with metabolic or endocrine disorders (OR 4.22; 95% CI 1.76-10.11), immune deficiency (1.91; 95% CI 1.05-3.49), preterm birth (OR 2.52; 95% CI 1.41-4.49), anemia at presentation (OR 2.34; 95% CI 1.28-4.27), radiological peribronchial wall thickening (OR 2.59; 95% CI 1.15-5.84) and hypoxia, altered mental status, seizures, or shock were more likely to require PICU admission. The presence of pharyngitis (OR 0.34; 95% CI 0.25-0.48); myalgia (OR 0.47; 95% CI 0.28-0.79) or diarrhea (OR 0.38; 95% CI 0.21-0.67) were inversely associated with hospital admission. Conclusions: In this data analysis reported to the SLIPE research network in Latin America, infants, social inequalities, comorbidities, anemia, bronchial wall thickening and specific clinical findings on presentation were associated with higher rates of hospitalization or PICU admission. This evidence provides data for prioritization prevention and treatment strategies for children suffering from COVID-19.