Timing of Complete Revascularization with Multivessel PCI for Myocardial Infarction.

BACKGROUND: In patients with ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) with multivessel coronary artery disease, the time at which complete revascularization of nonculprit lesions should be performed remains unknown. METHODS: We performed an international, open-label, randomized, noninferiority trial at 37 sites in Europe. Patients in a hemodynamically stable condition who had STEMI and multivessel coronary artery disease were randomly assigned to undergo immediate multivessel percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI; immediate group) or PCI of the culprit lesion followed by staged multivessel PCI of nonculprit lesions within 19 to 45 days after the index procedure (staged group). The primary end point was a composite of death from any cause, nonfatal myocardial infarction, stroke, unplanned ischemia-driven revascularization, or hospitalization for heart failure at 1 year after randomization. The percentages of patients with a primary or secondary end-point event are provided as Kaplan-Meier estimates at 6 months and at 1 year. RESULTS: We assigned 418 patients to undergo immediate multivessel PCI and 422 to undergo staged multivessel PCI. A primary end-point event occurred in 35 patients (8.5%) in the immediate group as compared with 68 patients (16.3%) in the staged group (risk ratio, 0.52; 95% confidence interval, 0.38 to 0.72; P<0.001 for noninferiority and P<0.001 for superiority). Nonfatal myocardial infarction and unplanned ischemia-driven revascularization occurred in 8 patients (2.0%) and 17 patients (4.1%), respectively, in the immediate group and in 22 patients (5.3%) and 39 patients (9.3%), respectively, in the staged group. The risk of death from any cause, the risk of stroke, and the risk of hospitalization for heart failure appeared to be similar in the two groups. A total of 104 patients in the immediate group and 145 patients in the staged group had a serious adverse event. CONCLUSIONS: Among patients in hemodynamically stable condition with STEMI and multivessel coronary artery disease, immediate multivessel PCI was noninferior to staged multivessel PCI with respect to the risk of death from any cause, nonfatal myocardial infarction, stroke, unplanned ischemia-driven revascularization, or hospitalization for heart failure at 1 year. (Supported by Boston Scientific; MULTISTARS AMI ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT03135275.).

Higher 1-year mortality on rest days in patients with acute coronary syndromes and decompensated heart failure-A SPUM-ACS sub-study.

BACKGROUND: Acute coronary syndromes (ACS) occurring on rest days have been associated with higher mortality, but the current literature remains inconsistent in this regard. This study included ACS patients presenting with acute decompensated heart failure (ADHF) investigating the relationship between time of coronary catheterization and outcomes. METHODS: Analyses were performed from the prospective, multicentric Special Program University Medicine Acute Coronary Syndromes and Inflammation (SPUM-ACS) Cohort. Patients were divided into two groups according to time of coronary catheterization on either workdays (Monday, 00:00 to Friday, 23:59) or rest days (Saturday, 00:00 to Sunday, 23:59 and public holidays). ADHF was defined by Killip Class III or IV upon presentation. Patients were followed over 1 year. RESULTS: Out of 4787 ACS patients enrolled in the SPUM-ACS Cohort, 207 (4.3%) presented with ADHF. 52 (25.1%) and 155 (74.9%) patients underwent coronary angiography on rest days or workdays, respectively. Baseline characteristics were similar among these groups. ACS patients with ADHF showed increased 1-year mortality on rest days (34.6% vs. 17.4%, p-value = 0.009). After correction for baseline characteristics, including the GRACE 2.0 Score, rest day presentation remained a significant predictor for 1-year mortality (adjusted hazard ratio = 2.42 [95% confidence interval: 1.14-5.17], p-value = 0.022). CONCLUSIONS: One-year all-cause mortality was high in ACS patients with ADHF and doubled for patients admitted on rest days. The present data support the association of a rest day effect and long-term patient survival and indicate a need for further investigations.

Automation of intracoronary continuous thermodilution for absolute coronary flow and microvascular resistance measurements.

AIM: Microvascular resistance reserve (MRR) as derived from continuous intracoronary thermodilution specifically quantifies microvasculature function. As originally described, the technique necessitates reinstrumentation of the artery and manual reprogramming of the infusion pump when performing resting and hyperemic measurements. To simplify and to render this procedure operator-independent, we developed a fully automated method. The aim of the present study is to validate the automated procedure against the originally described one. METHODS AND RESULTS: For the automated procedure, an infusion pump was preprogrammed to allow paired resting-hyperemic thermodilution assessment without interruption. To validate the accuracy of this new approach, 20 automated measurements were compared to those obtained in the same vessels with conventional paired resting-hyperemic thermodilution measurements (i.e., with a sensor pullback at each infusion rate and manual reprogramming of the infusion pump).  A close correlation between the conventional and the automated measuring technique was found for resting flow (Qrest : r = 0.89, mean bias = 2.52; SD = 15.47), hyperemic flow (Qhyper : r = 0.88, mean bias = -2.65; SD = 27.96), resting microvascular resistance (Rµ-rest : r = 0.90, mean bias = 52.14; SD = 228.29), hyperemic microvascular resistance Rµ-hyper : r = 0.92, mean bias = 12.95; SD = 57.80), and MRR (MRR: r = 0.89, mean bias = 0.04, SD = 0.59).  Procedural time was significantly shorter with the automated method (5'25″ ± 1'23″ vs. 4'36″ ± 0'33″, p = 0.013). CONCLUSION: Continuous intracoronary thermodilution-derived measurements of absolute flow, absolute resistance, and MRR can be fully automated. This further shortens and simplifies the procedure when performing paired resting-hyperemic measurements.

Development, validation, and reproducibility of the pullback pressure gradient (PPG) derived from manual fractional flow reserve pullbacks.

Fractional flow reserve (FFR) pullbacks assess the location and magnitude of pressure drops along the coronary artery. The pullback pressure gradient (PPG) quantifies the FFR pullback curve and provides a numeric expression of focal versus diffuse coronary artery disease. This study aims (1) to validate the PPG using manual FFR pullbacks compared with motorized FFR pullbacks as a reference; and (2) to determine the intra- and interoperator reproducibility of the PPG derived from manual FFR pullbacks. Patients with stable coronary artery disease and an FFR ≤ 0.80 were included. All patients underwent FFR pullback evaluation either with a motorized device or manually, depending on the study cohort. The agreement of the PPG between repeated pullbacks was assessed using the Bland-Altman method. Overall, 116 FFR pullback maneuvers (96 manual and 20 motorized) were analyzed. There was excellent agreement between the PPG derived from manual and motorized pullbacks (mean difference -0.01 ± 0.07, 95% limits of agreement [LOA] -0.14 to 0.12). The intra- and interoperator reproducibility of PPG derived from manual pullbacks were excellent (mean difference <0.01, 95% LOA -0.11 to 0.12, and mean difference <0.01, 95% LOA -0.12 to 0.11, respectively). The duration of the pullback maneuver did not impact the reproducibility of the PPG (r = 0.12, 95% CI: -0.29 to 0.49, p = 0.567). Manual pullbacks allow for an accurate PPG calculation. The inter- and intraoperator reproducibility of PPG derived from manual pullbacks were excellent.

Hyperemic hemodynamic characteristics of serial coronary lesions assessed by pullback pressure gradients.

OBJECTIVES: To characterize hemodynamics of serial coronary stenoses using fractional flow reserve (FFR) pullbacks and the pullback pressure gradients (PPG) index. BACKGROUND: The cross-talk between stenoses within the same coronary artery makes the prediction of the functional contribution of each lesion challenging. METHODS AND RESULTS: One-hundred seventeen patients undergoing coronary angiography for stable angina were prospectively recruited. Serial lesions were defined as two or more narrowings with visual diameter stenosis >50% on conventional angiography. Motorized FFR pullback tracings were obtained at 1 mm/s. Pullbacks were visually adjudicated as presenting two, one, and no focal pressure drops. The pattern of disease (i.e., focal or diffuse) was quantified using the PPG index. Twenty-five vessels presented serial lesions (mean PPG 0.48 ± 0.17). Two, one or no focal pressure drops were observed in 40% (n = 10; PPG 0.59 ± 0.17), 52% (n = 13; PPG 0.44 ± 0.12) and 8% of cases (n = 2; PPG 0.27 ± 0.01; p-value = 0.01). Distal FFR was similar between vessels with two, one and no focal pressure drops in the pullback curve (p-value = 0.27). The PPG index independently predicted the presence of two focal pressure drops in the pullback curve (p = 0.04). CONCLUSIONS: FFR pullbacks in serial coronary lesions exhibit three distinct functional patterns. High PPG was associated with pullback curves presenting two pressure drops. The PPG provides a quantitative assessment of the pattern of coronary artery disease in cases with serial lesions and might be useful to assess the appropriateness of percutaneous revascularization.

Future culprit detection based on angiography-derived FFR.

OBJECTIVES: We sought to characterize the hemodynamic impact of mild coronary artery disease (CAD) using quantitative flow ratio (QFR, an angiography-derived fractional flow reserve [FFR]) in a population of patients with only non-significant CAD at baseline that subsequently experienced a myocardial infarction (MI). BACKGROUND: The discriminatory value of FFR in patients with mild CAD remains imperfect. METHODS: We retrospectively included patients who underwent invasive coronary angiography for an MI, in whom another angiogram had been performed within the previous 5 years. Three-dimensional quantitative coronary angiography, QFR, and lesion length analysis were conducted on lesions responsible for the MI (future culprit lesions, [FCL]) as well as on control lesions (non-culprit lesions, [NCL]). RESULTS: Eighty-three FCL and 117 NCL were analyzed in 83 patients: FCL were more severe (median % diameter of stenosis [DS] 39.1% [29.8; 45.7] vs. 29.8% [25.0; 37.2], p < .001), had lower QFR values (0.94 [0.86; 0.98] vs. 0.98 [0.96; 1.00], p < .001) and tended to be longer (15.2 mm [10.0; 27.3] vs. 12.7 mm [9.3; 22.4], p = .070) than NCL. In lesions with an interval < 2 years between baseline angiography and MI, the difference in QFR was more pronounced compared to the lesions with a longer interval (FCL: 0.92 [0.85; 0.97] vs. NCL: 0.98 [0.94; 1.00], p < .001 and FCL: 0.96 [0.88; 1.00] vs. NCL: 0.98 [0.96;1.00], p = .006 respectively) CONCLUSION: Mild coronary stenoses that are subsequently responsible for an MI (FCL) exhibit a higher DS and lower QFR years before the event. Furthermore, FCL with a lower QFR at baseline appear to lead earlier to MI.

Simplified Assessment of the Index of Microvascular Resistance.

BACKGROUND: To validate a simplified invasive method for the calculation of the index of microvascular resistance (IMR). METHODS: This is a prospective, single-center study of patients with chronic coronary syndromes presenting with nonobstructive coronary artery disease. IMR was obtained using both intravenous (IV) adenosine and intracoronary (IC) papaverine. Each IMR measurement was obtained in duplicate. The primary objective was the agreement between IMR acquired using adenosine and papaverine. Secondary objectives include reproducibility of IMR and time required for the IMR measurement. RESULTS: One hundred and sixteen IMR measurements were performed in 29 patients. The mean age was 68.8 ± 7.24 years, and 27.6% was diabetics. IMR values were similar between papaverine and adenosine (17.7 ± 7.26 and 20.1 ± 8.6, p=0.25; Passing-Bablok coefficient A 0.58, 95% CI -2.42 to 3.53; coefficient B 0.90, 95% CI -0.74 to 1.07). The reproducibility of IMR was excellent with both adenosine and papaverine (ICC 0.78, 95% CI 0.63 to 0.88 and ICC 0.93, 95% CI 0.87 to 0.97). The time needed for microvascular assessment was significantly shortened by the use of IC papaverine (3.23 (2.84, 3.78) mins vs. 5.48 (4.94, 7.09) mins, p < 0.0001). CONCLUSION: IMR can be reliably measured using IC papaverine with similar results compared to intravenous infusion of adenosine with increased reproducibility and reduced procedural time. This approach simplifies the invasive assessment of the coronary microcirculation in the catheterization laboratory.

[MINOCA and the invasive assessment of the coronary microvascular function]. / MINOCA und die invasive Messung der kardialen Mikrozirkulation.

MINOCA and the invasive assessment of the coronary microvascular function Abstract. Around 10 % of patients undergoing coronary catheterization for acute myocardial infarction show no obstructive lesion of the epicardial vessels. In these cases, for a proper clinical management further anatomical and functional assessments are recommended, so that Myocardial infarctions with non-obstructive coronary arteries (MINOCAs) could be detected according to the current guidelines. On the other hand, investigations could lead to the diagnosis of Takotsubo Syndrome, the pathophysiologic understanding of which remains largely unclear. Since microvascular dysfunction was shown to play a major role in the origin of the disease, intracoronary flow measurements promise to deliver new meaningful pathophysiologic insights in the matter.

Vessel Fractional Flow Reserve and Graft Vasculopathy in Heart Transplant Recipients.

BACKGROUND: Cardiac allograft vasculopathy (CAV) remains the Achilles' heel of long-term survival after heart transplantation (HTx). The severity and extent of CAV is graded with conventional coronary angiography (COR) which has several limitations. Recently, vessel fractional flow reserve (vFFR) derived from COR has emerged as a diagnostic computational tool to quantify the functional severity of coronary artery disease. PURPOSE: The present study assessed the usefulness of vFFR to detect CAV in HTx recipients. METHODS: In HTx patients referred for annual check-up, undergoing surveillance COR, the extent of CAV was graded according to the criteria proposed by the international society of heart and lung transplantation (ISHLT). In addition, three-dimensional coronary geometries were constructed from COR to calculate pressure losses using vFFR. RESULTS: In 65 HTx patients with a mean age of 53.7 ± 10.1 years, 8.5 years (IQR 1.90, 15.2) years after HTx, a total number of 173 vessels (59 LAD, 61 LCX, and 53 RCA) were analyzed. The mean vFFR was 0.84 ± 0.15 and median was 0.88 (IQR 0.79, 0.94). A vFFR ≤ 0.80 was present in 24 patients (48 vessels). HTx patients with a history of ischemic cardiomyopathy (ICMP) had numerically lower vFFR as compared to those with non-ICMP (0.70 ± 0.22 vs. 0.79 ± 0.13, p = 0.06). The use of vFFR reclassified 31.9% of patients compared to the anatomical ISHLT criteria. Despite a CAV score of 0, a pathological vFFR ≤ 0.80 was detected in 8 patients (34.8%). CONCLUSION: The impairment in epicardial conductance assessed by vFFR in a subgroup of patients without CAV according to standard ISHLT criteria suggests the presence of a diffuse vasculopathy undetectable by conventional angiography. Therefore, we speculate that vFFR may be useful in risk stratification after HTx.

MitraClip and Transcatheter Aortic Valve Implantation (TAVI): State of the Art 2015.

The feasibility, safety, and efficacy of transcatheter heart valve (THV) therapies such as MitraClip and transcatheter aortic valve implantation (TAVI) have made them valid therapeutic options in high-risk or inoperable patients with heart failure (HF). Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) demonstrated noninferiority and superiority in terms of efficacy for 12 months of TAVI versus surgical replacement and optimal medical therapy, respectively. With regard to MitraClip, noninferiority was first demonstrated in four subgroups at 12 months and then later at 4-year follow-up. This difference in clinical outcomes between the two therapies is consistent with the discrepancy in the level of recommendation and class of evidence for TAVI and MitraClip according to recent international guidelines (IB vs. IIbC, respectively). Data from ongoing RCTs and national registries will help establish the reciprocal role and hierarchy among THV therapies, surgery, and medical treatment in patients with HF.

Virtual calcium removal in calcified coronary arteries with photon-counting detector CT-first in-vivo experience.

Purpose: To evaluate the feasibility and accuracy of quantification of calcified coronary stenoses using virtual non-calcium (VNCa) images in coronary CT angiography (CCTA) with photon-counting detector (PCD) CT compared with quantitative coronary angiography (QCA). Materials and methods: This retrospective, institutional-review board approved study included consecutive patients with calcified coronary artery plaques undergoing CCTA with PCD-CT and invasive coronary angiography between July and December 2022. Virtual monoenergetic images (VMI) and VNCa images were reconstructed. Diameter stenoses were quantified on VMI and VNCa images by two readers. 3D-QCA served as the standard of reference. Measurements were compared using Bland-Altman analyses, Wilcoxon tests, and intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC). Results: Thirty patients [mean age, 64 years ± 8 (standard deviation); 26 men] with 81 coronary stenoses from calcified plaques were included. Ten of the 81 stenoses (12%) had to be excluded because of erroneous plaque subtraction on VNCa images. Median diameter stenosis determined on 3D-QCA was 22% (interquartile range, 11%-35%; total range, 4%-88%). As compared with 3D-QCA, VMI overestimated diameter stenoses (mean differences -10%, p < .001, ICC: .87 and -7%, p < .001, ICC: .84 for reader 1 and 2, respectively), whereas VNCa images showed similar diameter stenoses (mean differences 0%, p = .68, ICC: .94 and 1%, p = .07, ICC: .93 for reader 1 and 2, respectively). Conclusion: First experience in mainly minimal to moderate stenoses suggests that virtual calcium removal in CCTA with PCD-CT, when feasible, has the potential to improve the quantification of calcified stenoses.

Blood Flow Energy Identifies Coronary Lesions Culprit of Future Myocardial Infarction.

The present study establishes a link between blood flow energy transformations in coronary atherosclerotic lesions and clinical outcomes. The predictive capacity for future myocardial infarction (MI) was compared with that of established quantitative coronary angiography (QCA)-derived predictors. Angiography-based computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations were performed on 80 human coronary lesions culprit of MI within 5 years and 108 non-culprit lesions for future MI. Blood flow energy transformations were assessed in the converging flow segment of the lesion as ratios of kinetic and rotational energy values (KER and RER, respectively) at the QCA-identified minimum lumen area and proximal lesion sections. The anatomical and functional lesion severity were evaluated with QCA to derive percentage area stenosis (%AS), vessel fractional flow reserve (vFFR), and translesional vFFR (ΔvFFR). Wall shear stress profiles were investigated in terms of topological shear variation index (TSVI). KER and RER predicted MI at 5 years (AUC = 0.73, 95% CI 0.65-0.80, and AUC = 0.76, 95% CI 0.70-0.83, respectively; p < 0.0001 for both). The predictive capacity for future MI of KER and RER was significantly stronger than vFFR (p = 0.0391 and p = 0.0045, respectively). RER predictive capacity was significantly stronger than %AS and ΔvFFR (p = 0.0041 and p = 0.0059, respectively). The predictive capacity for future MI of KER and RER did not differ significantly from TSVI. Blood flow kinetic and rotational energy transformations were significant predictors for MI at 5 years (p < 0.0001). The findings of this study support the hypothesis of a biomechanical contribution to the process of plaque destabilization/rupture leading to MI.

A simple coronary CT angiography-based jeopardy score for the identification of extensive coronary artery disease: Validation against invasive coronary angiography.

PURPOSE: The invasive British Cardiovascular Intervention Society Jeopardy Score (iBCIS-JS) is a simple angiographic scoring system, enabling quantification of the extent of jeopardized myocardium related to clinically significant coronary artery disease (CAD). The purpose of this study was to develop and validate the coronary CT angiography-based BCIS-JS (CT-BCIS-JS) against the iBCIS-JS in patients with suspected or stable CAD. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Patients who underwent coronary CT angiography followed by invasive coronary angiography, within 90 days were retrospectively included. CT-BCIS-JS and iBCIS-JS were calculated, with a score ≥ 6 indicating extensive CAD. Correlation between the CT-BCIS-JS and iBCIS-JS was searched for using Spearman's coefficient, and agreement with weighted Kappa (κ) analyses. RESULTS: A total of 122 patients were included. There were 102 men and 20 women with a median age of 62 years (Q1, Q3: 54, 68; age range: 19-83 years). No differences in median CT-BCIS-JS (4; Q1, Q3: 0, 8) and median iBCIS-JS (4; Q1, Q3: 0, 8) were found (P = 0.18). Extensive CAD was identified in 53 (43.4%) and 52 (42.6%) patients using CT-BCIS-JS and iBCIS-JS, respectively (P = 0.88). CT-based and iBCIS-JS showed excellent correlation (r = 0.98; P < 0.001) and almost perfect agreement (κ = 0.93; 95% confidence interval: 0.90-0.97). Agreement for identification of an iBCIS-JS ≥ 6 was almost perfect (κ = 0.94; 95 % confidence interval: 0.87-0.99). CONCLUSION: The CT-BCIS-JS represents a feasible, and accurate method for quantification of CAD, with capabilities not different from those of iBCIS-JS. It enables simple, non-invasive identification of patients with anatomically extensive CAD.

Association Between Automated 3D Measurement of Coronary Luminal Narrowing and Risk of Future Myocardial Infarction.

This study focuses on identifying anatomical markers with predictive capacity for long-term myocardial infarction (MI) in focal coronary artery disease (CAD). Eighty future culprit lesions (FCL) and 108 non-culprit lesions (NCL) from 80 patients underwent 3D quantitative coronary angiography. The minimum lumen area (MLA), minimum lumen ratio (MLR), and vessel fractional flow reserve (vFFR) were evaluated. MLR was defined as the ratio between MLA and the cross-sectional area at the proximal lesion edge, with lower values indicating more abrupt luminal narrowing. Significant differences were observed between FCL and NCL in MLR (0.41 vs. 0.53, p < 0.001). MLR correlated inversely with translesional vFFR (r = - 0.26, p = 0.0004) and was the strongest predictor of MI at 5 years (AUC = 0.75). Lesions with MLR < 0.40 had a fourfold increased MI incidence at 5 years. MLR is a robust predictor of future adverse coronary events.

A novel score to predict in-hospital mortality for patients with acute coronary syndrome and out-of-hospital cardiac arrest: the FACTOR study.

INTRODUCTION: Acute coronary syndromes (ACS) represent a substantial global healthcare challenge. In its most severe form, it can lead to out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA). Despite medical advancements, survival rates in OHCA patients remain low. Further, the prediction of outcomes in these patients poses a challenge to all health care providers involved. This study aims at developing a score with variables available on admission to assess in-hospital mortality of patients with OHCA undergoing coronary angiography. METHOD: All patients with OHCA due to ACS admitted to a tertiary care center were included. A multivariate logistic regression analysis was conducted to explore the association between clinical variables and in-hospital all-cause mortality. A scoring system incorporating variables available upon admission to assess individual patients' risk of in-hospital mortality was developed (FACTOR score). The score was then validated. RESULTS: A total of 291 patients were included in the study, with a median age of 65 [56-73] years, including 47 women (16.2%). The in-hospital mortality rate was 41.2%. A prognostic model was developed in the derivation cohort (n = 138) and included the following variables: age, downtime, first detected rhythm, and administration of epinephrine. The area under the curve for the FACTOR score was 0.823 (95% CI 0.737-0.894) in the derivation cohort and 0.828 (0.760-0.891) in the validation cohort (n = 153). CONCLUSION: The FACTOR score demonstrated a reliable prognostic tool for health care providers in assessing in-hospital mortality of OHCA patients. Early acknowledgement of a poor prognosis may help in patient management and allocation of resources.

Twenty-five-year trends in incidence, angiographic appearance, and management of spontaneous coronary artery dissection.

BACKGROUND: Spontaneous coronary artery dissection (SCAD) has been described as an infrequent cause of acute coronary syndrome (ACS). Knowledge about the disease is still limited and SCAD might still be underdiagnosed. OBJECTIVES: Trends in incidence, presentation, angiographic appearance, management, and outcomes of SCAD over 25 years were analyzed. METHODS: Patients with SCAD between 1997 and 2021 at the University Hospital Zurich, Switzerland, were included. Incidences were assessed as total numbers and proportions of ACS cases. Clinical data were collected from medical records and angiographic findings were reviewed. Major adverse cardiac events (MACE) were defined as the composite of all-cause death, cardiac arrest, SCAD recurrence or progression, other myocardial infarction, and stroke. RESULTS: One hundred fifty-six SCAD cases were included in this study. The incidence increased significantly in total (p < 0.001) and relative to ACS cases (p < 0.001). This was based on an increase of shorter lesions (p = 0.004), SCAD type 2 (p < 0.001), and lesions in side branches (p = 0.014), whereas lesions in the left main coronary artery and proximal segments were decreasing (p-values 0.029 and < 0.001, respectively). There was an increase in conservative therapy (p < 0.001). The rate of MACE (24%) was stable, however, there was a reduced proportion of patients with a need for intensive care treatment (p = 0.017). CONCLUSIONS: SCAD represents an important entity of ACS that still might be underappreciated. The increasing incidence of SCAD is likely based on better awareness and familiarity with the disease. A lower need for intensive care treatment suggests positive effects of the increasing implementation of conservative management.

Bicuspid Aortic Valve Disease: Classifications, Treatments, and Emerging Transcatheter Paradigms.

Bicuspid aortic valve (BAV) is a common congenital valvular malformation, which may lead to early aortic valve disease and bicuspid-associated aortopathy. A novel BAV classification system was recently proposed to coincide with transcatheter aortic valve replacement being increasingly considered in younger patients with symptomatic BAV, with good clinical results, yet without randomized trial evidence. Procedural technique, along with clinical outcomes, have considerably improved in BAV patients compared with tricuspid aortic stenosis patients undergoing transcatheter aortic valve replacement. The present review summarizes the novel BAV classification systems and examines contemporary surgical and transcatheter approaches.