Introduction: A Decade Review of Adolescence Research.

This paper provides an introduction to the Special Issue, A Decade Review of Adolescence Research. In this paper, we describe the goals of the special issue and the process of planning and reviewing reviews. We describe other special issues of JRA in the past decade, and preview upcoming changes and special issues in the journal.

Relational aggression and victimization during adolescence: A meta-analytic review of unique associations with popularity, peer acceptance, rejection, and friendship characteristics.

INTRODUCTION: This meta-analysis includes 46 studies including 35,468 adolescents (M age = 12.4 years) with a mean sample ages between 10 and 17 years. Just over half of the studies include samples drawn from the U.S. with the remaining samples representing 11 different countries. METHOD: We examined the magnitude of overlap between relational aggression and relational victimization and, using infrequently used semipartial correlations as effect sizes, we examined unique associations of each with peer acceptance, peer rejection, popularity, and positive friendship characteristics. RESULTS & CONCLUSIONS: Results indicate a strong intercorrelation between relational aggression and victimization (r‾ = .48). We found no mean level gender difference in experiences of relational aggression or relational victimization. Relational aggression is positively associated with popularity; victimization is negatively associated with peer acceptance and friendship characteristics. Both, aggression and victimization are positively associated with rejection. We explored method of assessment as a potential source of variability of effect sizes as well as potential publication bias. Future research and implications for prevention and intervention are discussed.

A meta-analysis of the differential relations of traditional and cyber-victimization with internalizing problems.

This meta-analysis examined the associations between cyber-victimization and internalizing problems controlling for the occurrence of traditional victimization. Twenty independent samples with a total of 90,877 participants were included. Results confirmed the significant intercorrelation between traditional and cyber-victimization (r = .43). They both have medium-to-large bivariate correlations with internalizing problems. Traditional victimization (sr = .22) and cyber-victimization (sr = .12) were also uniquely related to internalizing problems. The difference in the relations between each type of victimization and internalizing problems was small (differential d = .06) and not statistically significant (p = .053). Moderation of these effect sizes by sample characteristics (e.g., age and proportion of girls) and study features (e.g., whether a definition of bullying was provided to participants and the time frame used as reference) was investigated. Results are discussed within the extant literature on cyber-aggression and cyber-victimization and future directions are proposed.

Overt and Relational Victimization: A Meta-Analytic Review of Their Overlap and Associations With Social-Psychological Adjustment.

This meta-analytic review includes 135 studies, representing 17 countries, of child and adolescent (ages 4-17) samples of overt and relational peer victimization and examines the magnitude of overlap between forms of victimization and associations with five social-psychological adjustment indices. Results indicate a strong intercorrelation between forms of victimization (r¯ = .72). No gender difference with regard to relational victimization was found, but boys were slightly higher in overt victimization. Overt victimization is more strongly associated with overt aggression; relational victimization is more strongly related to internalizing problems, lower levels of received prosocial behavior from peers, and relational aggression. Both forms are related to externalizing problems. Age and method of assessment were explored as potential sources of variability in effect sizes.

VII. REPLICATION, RESEARCH ACCUMULATION, AND META-ANALYSIS IN DEVELOPMENTAL SCIENCE.

The progression of scientific knowledge requires replication of research results and an orderly accumulation of research knowledge. However, developmental science, like many other sciences, has too often prioritized individual studies at the expense of replication and synthesis efforts. In this chapter, I describe the concepts of replication and research accumulation and consider both their barriers and potentials for developmental science. I emphasize the importance of considering effect sizes rather than statistical significance, and I describe meta-analysis as a powerful tool in facilitating research accumulation and in guiding replication efforts. By considering advancement in terms of research accumulation rather than single studies, developmental science can achieve greater efficiency and precision to guide both future research and applied efforts.

I. DEVELOPMENTAL METHODOLOGY AS A CENTRAL SUBDISCIPLINE OF DEVELOPMENTAL SCIENCE.

This first chapter introduces the main goals of the monograph and previews the remaining chapters. The goals of this monograph are to provide summaries of our current understanding of advanced developmental methodologies, provide information that can advance our understanding of human development, identify shortcomings in our understanding of developmental methodology, and serve as a flagpost for organizing developmental methodology as a subdiscipline within the broader field of developmental science. The remaining chapters in this monograph address issues in design (sampling and big data), longitudinal data analysis, and issues of replication and research accumulation. The final chapter describes the history of developmental methodology, considers how the previous chapters in this monograph fit within this subdiscipline, and offers recommendations for further advancement.

Overt and Relational Aggression Participant Role Behavior: Measurement and Relations With Sociometric Status and Depression.

This study is the first to measure participant role behavior across overt and relational forms of aggression. The Overt and Relational Aggression Participant Role Behavior Scales were designed to measure aggression, assisting, reinforcing, defending, victimization, and outsider behavior during acts of peer aggression in an ethnically diverse sample of 609 adolescents (M age = 12 years). The data fit the hypothesized 12-factor model, and measurement invariance was established across gender. Relational victimization, but not overt victimization, was positively associated with all other relational aggression roles. Each participant role subscale was positively associated with depressive symptoms with the exception of the overt and relational outsider subscales. Future research and intervention efforts should consider overt and relational aggression participant roles, separately.

Brief report: Identifying defenders of peer victimization.

Betweenness centrality quantifies the amount of network flow that a network member controls as hypothetical traffic passes between network members. Those with high betweenness centrality within the peer social network based on nominations of liking may be especially important connectors between individuals who do not like each other. This study tested the hypothesis that individuals' betweenness centrality would predict their defending of victimized peers. After controlling for popularity, perception of being liked, and defenders' victimization, betweenness centrality predicted defending. Those found to be connectors within the peer group were more likely to be those who defend peer victims. This investigation showed that analysis of betweenness centrality is a viable way to identify potential defenders in research and also those who could potentially act as mediators.

Perceptions of intimacy and friendship reciprocity moderate peer influence on aggression.

Previous research has shown that close friends' influence can exacerbate adolescents' aggressive behavior, but results of studies which examine whether friendships of greater or lesser qualities moderate peer influence effects are inconsistent. The present study tested whether the perception of the positive friendship quality of intimate exchange and friendship reciprocity moderated best friend influence on participant aggression over time. The 243 participants were approximately 12 years old and ethnically diverse. Neither intimate exchange nor reciprocity significantly moderated friend influence on aggression in a simple way, but the interaction of intimate exchange and friendship reciprocity predicted peer influence on participants' aggression over time. Specifically, highly intimate, nonreciprocal best friendships and less intimate, reciprocal best friendships showed greatest influence when friends' proportion of peer nominations for aggression was high. Reciprocity and intimacy should be considered when predicting peer influence on aggression.

Peers' Perceptions of Gender Nonconformity: Associations with Overt and Relational Peer Victimization and Aggression in Early Adolescence.

The current study used reports from 318 early adolescents to examine the associations of peer-reported gender nonconformity with peer- and self-reported overt and relational victimization and aggression and possible sex differences in these associations. Multiple-group structural equation modeling revealed that higher levels of peer-reported gender nonconformity were associated with higher self- and peer-reports of overt and relational victimization and aggression among males and females. The association between peer-reported gender nonconformity and peer-reported overt aggression was moderated by participant sex, such that the association was stronger for females compared to males. Results suggest that perceived gender nonconformity is associated with problematic peer relations, especially among females, in early adolescence and implications of these associations are discussed.

Relational sanctification, communal coping, and depression among African American couples.

Despite the common use of religious buffers, African Americans are disproportionately affected by depressive symptoms. Communal coping may serve as one factor in helping religious African American couples alleviate the symptoms of depression. This study examines the association between relational sanctification and depressive symptoms as mediated by the communal coping of 467 African American married and cohabiting couples. Data from the sampled couples were analyzed using a common fate model, and analyses revealed higher scores on the measure of sanctification were associated with more communal coping; more communal coping was associated with fewer depressive symptoms among women and men, and communal coping acted as a mediator between relational sanctification and depressive symptoms in both partners. Findings from this study underscore the importance of considering how the religiosity and cooperative action of African American couples relate to depressive symptoms.

A meta-analytic review of Berzonsky's Identity Style Inventory (ISI).

Identity formation is an essential developmental challenge associated with adolescence (Cote, 2009; Erikson, 1950, 1968). Berzonsky (1988) developed a social-cognitive model that distinguishes three styles by which adolescents engage the tasks associated with identity formation: informational, normative, and diffuse-avoidant. Focusing on studies (K = 62) that employed the Identity Style Inventory (ISI; Berzonsky, 1989), three meta-analytic reviews were performed. First, results show a medium positive association between the informational and normative styles, a medium negative association between informational and diffuse-avoidant styles, and a negligible negative association between the normative and diffuse-avoidant styles. Second, results show large positive associations between commitment and both the informational and normative identity styles, and a large negative association between commitment and the diffuse-avoidant style. Finally, results show a small positive association between gender and the diffuse-avoidant identity style, with men scoring higher than women. Age and country of origin were evaluated as moderators.

A meta-analysis of longitudinal peer influence effects in childhood and adolescence.

For decades, psychological research has examined the extent to which children's and adolescents' behavior is influenced by the behavior of their peers (i.e., peer influence effects). This review provides a comprehensive synthesis and meta-analysis of this vast field of psychological science, with a goal to quantify the magnitude of peer influence effects across a broad array of behaviors (externalizing, internalizing, academic). To provide a rigorous test of peer influence effects, only studies that employed longitudinal designs, controlled for youths' baseline behaviors, and used "external informants" (peers' own reports or other external reporters) were included. These criteria yielded a total of 233 effect sizes from 60 independent studies across four different continents. A multilevel meta-analytic approach, allowing the inclusion of multiple dependent effect sizes from the same study, was used to estimate an average cross-lagged regression coefficient, indicating the extent to which peers' behavior predicted changes in youths' own behavior over time. Results revealed a peer influence effect that was small in magnitude (߯ = .08) but significant and robust. Peer influence effects did not vary as a function of the behavioral outcome, age, or peer relationship type (one close friend vs. multiple friends). Time lag and peer context emerged as significant moderators, suggesting stronger peer influence effects over shorter time periods, and when the assessment of peer relationships was not limited to the classroom context. Results provide the most thorough and comprehensive synthesis of childhood and adolescent peer influence to date, indicating that peer influence occurs similarly across a broad range of behaviors and attitudes. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Best practices for missing data management in counseling psychology.

This article urges counseling psychology researchers to recognize and report how missing data are handled, because consumers of research cannot accurately interpret findings without knowing the amount and pattern of missing data or the strategies that were used to handle those data. Patterns of missing data are reviewed, and some of the common strategies for dealing with them are described. The authors provide an illustration in which data were simulated and evaluate 3 methods of handling missing data: mean substitution, multiple imputation, and full information maximum likelihood. Results suggest that mean substitution is a poor method for handling missing data, whereas both multiple imputation and full information maximum likelihood are recommended alternatives to this approach. The authors suggest that researchers fully consider and report the amount and pattern of missing data and the strategy for handling those data in counseling psychology research and that editors advise researchers of this expectation.

Financial socialization of first-year college students: the roles of parents, work, and education.

This cross-sectional study tests a conceptual financial socialization process model, specifying four-levels that connect anticipatory socialization during adolescence to young adults' current financial learning, to their financial attitudes, and to their financial behavior. A total of 2,098 first-year college students (61.9% females) participated in the survey, representing a diverse ethnic group (32.6% minority participation: Hispanic 14.9%, Asian/Asian American 9%, Black 3.4%, Native American 1.8% and other 3.5%). Structural equation modeling indicated that parents, work, and high school financial education during adolescence predicted young adults' current financial learning, attitude and behavior, with the role played by parents substantially greater than the role played by work experience and high school financial education combined. Data also supported the proposed hierarchical financial socialization four-level model, indicating that early financial socialization is related to financial learning, which in turn is related to financial attitudes and subsequently to financial behavior. The study presents a discussion of how the theories of consumer socialization and planned behavior were combined effectively to depict the financial development of young adults. Several practical implications are also provided for parents, educators and students.

Direct and indirect aggression during childhood and adolescence: a meta-analytic review of gender differences, intercorrelations, and relations to maladjustment.

This meta-analytic review of 148 studies on child and adolescent direct and indirect aggression examined the magnitude of gender differences, intercorrelations between forms, and associations with maladjustment. Results confirmed prior findings of gender differences (favoring boys) in direct aggression and trivial gender differences in indirect aggression. Results also indicated a substantial intercorrelation (r = .76) between these forms. Despite this high intercorrelation, the 2 forms showed unique associations with maladjustment: Direct aggression is more strongly related to externalizing problems, poor peer relations, and low prosocial behavior, and indirect aggression is related to internalizing problems and higher prosocial behavior. Moderation of these effect sizes by method of assessment, age, gender, and several additional variables were systematically investigated.

Shared targets for aggression by early adolescent friends.

Similarity in early adolescent friends' general aggressiveness is well known, but questions remain regarding the degree to which friends aggress against the same victims. The authors examined this by administering the newly created Dyadic Aggression and Victimization Inventory to 417 sixth- through eighth-grade boys and girls (53%). Friends were found to share more targets for aggression than nonfriends, even after general levels of aggression were controlled (all ps < .05). Moreover, greater sharing of targets with friends relative to nonfriends was more pronounced among aggressive youths than nonaggressive youths, especially among aggressive youths' best friends relative to their other friends. Generally, these findings were similar across boys and girls as well as among older and younger youths. Implications of these findings and directions for future research are discussed.

Developmental methodology as a context for interdisciplinary dialogue in developmental science.

In this comment, I first highlight the contributions of Robinson-Cimpian, Lubienski, Ganley, and Copur-Gencturk (2014) in particular and a more interdisciplinary approach in general for the subdiscipline of developmental psychology. Second, I identify some historic methodological foci of psychology and encourage Robinson-Cimpian et al. to consider these possibilities. Finally, I end with my perception that the emerging subdiscipline of developmental methodology can provide a common context for interdisciplinary dialogue in developmental science.

Toward a Relationship Perspective on Aggression among Schoolchildren: Integrating Social Cognitive and Interdependence Theories.

The traditional psychological approach of studying aggression among schoolchildren in terms of individual differences in aggression and in victimization has been valuable in identifying prevalence rates, risk, and consequences of involvement in aggression. However, it is argued that a focus on aggressor-victim relationships is warranted based on both conceptual and empirical grounds. Such a shift in focus requires modification and integration of existing theories of aggression, and this paper integrates social cognitive theory and interdependence theory to suggest a new, interdependent social cognitive theory of aggression. Specifically, this paper identifies points of overlap and different foci between these theories, and it illustrates their integration through a proposed model of the emergence of aggressor-victim interactions and relationships. The paper concludes that expanding consideration to include aggressor-victim relationships among schoolchildren offers considerable theoretical, empirical, and intervention opportunities.