Lower numbers of natural killer T cells in HIV-1 and Mycobacterium leprae co-infected patients.

Natural killer T (NKT) cells are a heterogeneous population of lymphocytes that recognize antigens presented by CD1d and have attracted attention because of their potential role linking innate and adaptive immune responses. Peripheral NKT cells display a memory-activated phenotype and can rapidly secrete large amounts of pro-inflammatory cytokines upon antigenic activation. In this study, we evaluated NKT cells in the context of patients co-infected with HIV-1 and Mycobacterium leprae. The volunteers were enrolled into four groups: 22 healthy controls, 23 HIV-1-infected patients, 20 patients with leprosy and 17 patients with leprosy and HIV-1-infection. Flow cytometry and ELISPOT assays were performed on peripheral blood mononuclear cells. We demonstrated that patients co-infected with HIV-1 and M. leprae have significantly lower NKT cell frequencies [median 0.022%, interquartile range (IQR): 0.007-0.051] in the peripheral blood when compared with healthy subjects (median 0.077%, IQR: 0.032-0.405, P < 0.01) or HIV-1 mono-infected patients (median 0.072%, IQR: 0.030-0.160, P < 0.05). Also, more NKT cells from co-infected patients secreted interferon-γ after stimulation with DimerX, when compared with leprosy mono-infected patients (P = 0.05). These results suggest that NKT cells are decreased in frequency in HIV-1 and M. leprae co-infected patients compared with HIV-1 mono-infected patients alone, but are at a more activated state. Innate immunity in human subjects is strongly influenced by their spectrum of chronic infections, and in HIV-1-infected subjects, a concurrent mycobacterial infection probably hyper-activates and lowers circulating NKT cell numbers.

Invariant Natural Killer T-cells and their subtypes may play a role in the pathogenesis of endometriosis.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the frequencies of iNKT cells and their subsets in patients with deep endometriosis. METHODS: A case-control study was conducted between 2013 and 2015, with 73 patients distributed into two groups: 47 women with a histological diagnosis of endometriosis and 26 controls. Peripheral blood, endometriosis lesions, and healthy peritoneal samples were collected on the day of surgery to determine the frequencies of iNKT cells and subtypes via flow cytometry analysis. RESULTS: The authors observed a lower number of iNKT (p = 0.01) and Double-Negative (DN) iNKT cells (p = 0.02) in the blood of patients with endometriosis than in the control group. The number of DN iNKT IL-17+ cells in the secretory phase was lower in the endometriosis group (p = 0.049). There was an increase in the secretion of IL-17 by CD4+ iNKT cells in the blood of patients with endometriosis and severe dysmenorrhea (p = 0.038), and severe acyclic pelvic pain (p = 0.048). Patients with severe dysmenorrhea also had a decreased number of CD4+ CCR7+ cells (p = 0.022). CONCLUSION: The decreased number of total iNKT and DN iNKT cells in patients with endometriosis suggests that iNKT cells play a role in the pathogenesis of endometriosis and can be used to develop new diagnostic and therapeutic agents.

Increased number and function of natural killer cells in human immunodeficiency virus 1-positive subjects co-infected with herpes simplex virus 2.

Natural killer (NK) cells bridge the interface between innate and adaptive immunity and are implicated in the control of herpes simplex virus 2 (HSV-2) infection. In subjects infected with human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1), the critical impact of the innate immune response on disease progression has recently come into focus. Higher numbers of NK cells are associated with lower HIV-1 plasma viraemia. Individuals with the compound genotype of killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptor (KIR) 3DS1 and human leucocyte antigen (HLA)-Bw4-80I, or who have alleles of KIR3DL1 that encode proteins highly expressed on the NK cell surface, have a significant delay in disease progression. We studied the effect of HSV-2 co-infection in HIV-1-infected subjects, and show that HSV-2 co-infection results in a pan-lymphocytosis, with elevated absolute numbers of CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells, and NK cells. The NK cells in HSV-2 co-infected subjects functioned more efficiently, with an increase in degranulation after in vitro stimulation. The number of NK cells expressing the activating receptors NKp30 and NKp46, and expressing KIR3DL1 or KIR3DS1, was inversely correlated with HIV-1 plasma viral load in subjects mono-infected with HIV-1, but not in subjects co-infected with HSV-2. This suggests that HSV-2 infection mediates changes within the NK cell population that may affect immunity in HIV-1 infection.

Immune cellular parameters of leprosy and human immunodeficiency virus-1 co-infected subjects.

Leprosy and human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) are examples of human infections where interactions between the pathogen and the host cellular immunity determine the clinical manifestations of disease. Hence, a significant immunopathological interaction between HIV-1 and leprosy might be expected. In the present study we explored several aspects of cellular immunity in patients co-infected with HIV-1 and Mycobacterium leprae. Twenty-eight individuals were studied, comprising four groups: healthy controls, HIV-1 and M. leprae co-infection, HIV-1 mono-infection, and M. leprae mono-infection. Subjects in the mono-infection and co-infection groups were matched as far as possible for bacillary load and HIV disease status, as appropriate. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) were analysed using six- and seven-colour flow cytometry to evaluate T-cell subpopulations and their activation status, dendritic cell (DC) distribution phenotypes and expression of IL-4 by T cells. The co-infected group exhibited lower CD4 : CD8 ratios, higher levels of CD8(+) T-cell activation, increased V delta : V delta 2 T cell ratios and decreased percentages of plasmacytoid DC, compared with HIV-1 mono-infected subjects. Across infected groups, IL-4 production by CD4(+) T lymphocytes was positively correlated with the percentage of effector memory CD4(+) T cells, suggesting antigenically driven differentiation of this population of T cells in both HIV-1 and M. leprae infections. Co-infection with M. leprae may exacerbate the immunopathology of HIV-1 disease. A T helper 2 (Th2) bias in the CD4(+) T-cell response was evident in both HIV-1 infection and leprosy, but no additive effect was apparent in co-infected patients.

Latent Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infection Is Associated With a Higher Frequency of Mucosal-Associated Invariant T and Invariant Natural Killer T Cells.

Increasing drug resistance and the lack of an effective vaccine are the main factors contributing to Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) being a major cause of death globally. Despite intensive research efforts, it is not well understood why some individuals control Mtb infection and some others develop active disease. HIV-1 infection is associated with an increased incidence of active tuberculosis, even in virally suppressed individuals. Mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) and invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells are innate T cells that can recognize Mtb-infected cells. Contradicting results regarding the frequency of MAIT cells in latent Mtb infection have been reported. In this confirmatory study, we investigated the frequency, phenotype, and IFNγ production of MAIT and iNKT cells in subjects with latent or active Mtb infection. We found that the frequency of both cell types was increased in subjects with latent Mtb infection compared with uninfected individuals or subjects with active infection. We found no change in the expression of HLA-DR, PD-1, and CCR6, as well as the production of IFNγ by MAIT and iNKT cells, among subjects with latent Mtb infection or uninfected controls. The proportion of CD4- CD8+ MAIT cells in individuals with latent Mtb infection was, however, increased. HIV-1 infection was associated with a loss of MAIT and iNKT cells, and the residual cells had elevated expression of the exhaustion marker PD-1. Altogether, the results suggest a role for MAIT and iNKT cells in immunity against Mtb and show a deleterious impact of HIV-1 infection on those cells.

Invariant Natural Killer T-cells and their subtypes may play a role in the pathogenesis of endometriosis

Abstract Objective To evaluate the frequencies of iNKT cells and their subsets in patients with deep endometriosis. Methods A case-control study was conducted between 2013 and 2015, with 73 patients distributed into two groups: 47 women with a histological diagnosis of endometriosis and 26 controls. Peripheral blood, endometriosis lesions, and healthy peritoneal samples were collected on the day of surgery to determine the frequencies of iNKT cells and subtypes via flow cytometry analysis. Results The authors observed a lower number of iNKT (p= 0.01) and Double-Negative (DN) iNKT cells (p= 0.02) in the blood of patients with endometriosis than in the control group. The number of DN iNKT IL-17+ cells in the secretory phase was lower in the endometriosis group (p= 0.049). There was an increase in the secretion of IL-17 by CD4+ iNKT cells in the blood of patients with endometriosis and severe dysmenorrhea (p= 0.038), and severe acyclic pelvic pain (p= 0.048). Patients with severe dysmenorrhea also had a decreased number of CD4+ CCR7+ cells (p= 0.022). Conclusion The decreased number of total iNKT and DN iNKT cells in patients with endometriosis suggests that iNKT cells play a role in the pathogenesis of endometriosis and can be used to develop new diagnostic and therapeutic agents.

Surface expression of inhibitory (CTLA-4) and stimulatory (OX40) receptors by CD4+ regulatory T cell subsets circulating in human malaria.

Several CD4+ T cell subtypes contribute to immune homeostasis in malaria, but the markers that define the main suppressive T cell subsets induced by this infection remain largely unknown. Here we provide a detailed phenotypic characterization of immunoregulatory CD4+ T cell populations in uncomplicated human malaria. We found an increased proportion of CD4+ T cells expressing CTLA-4, OX40, GITR, TNFRII, and CD69 in acute-phase single-species infections with Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium falciparum, or both. Such an increase was not proportional to parasite density in P. vivax infections, and did not persist after parasite clearance. Significantly, less than 10% of CD4+ T cells expressing these regulatory molecules had the classical T regulatory (Treg) phenotype (CD4+CD25+CD127-FoxP3+). Two major Treg cell subpopulations, which together accounted for 19-23% of all Treg cells circulating in malaria patients, expressed surface receptors with opposing regulatory functions, either CTLA-4 or OX40. OX40+ Treg cells outnumbered their CTLA-4+ counterparts (1.8:1) during acute P. vivax infection, while a more balanced ratio (1.3:1) was observed following parasite clearance These data reveal new players in the complex CD4+ Treg cell network that maintains immune homeostasis in malaria and suggest potential targets for therapeutic interventions to improve parasite-specific effector immune responses.

Inversion of the Vδ1 to Vδ2 γδ T cell ratio in CVID is not restored by IVIg and is associated with immune activation and exhaustion.

Common variable immunodeficiency (CVID) is defined by low levels of IgG and IgA, but perturbations in T cells are also commonly found. However, there is limited information on γδ T cells in CVID patients. Newly diagnosed CVID patients (n = 15) were enrolled before and after intravenous IgG (IVIg) replacement therapy. Cryopreserved peripheral blood mononuclear cells were then used to study γδ T cells and CVID patients were compared to healthy controls (n = 22). The frequency and absolute count of Vδ1 γδ T cells was found to be increased in CVID (median 0.60% vs 2.64%, P <0.01 and 7.5 vs 39, P <0.01 respectively), while they were decreased for Vδ2 γδ T cells (median, 2.36% vs 0.74%, P <0.01 and 37.8 vs 13.9, P <0.01 respectively) resulting in an inversion of the Vδ1 to Vδ2 ratio (0.24 vs 1.4, P <0.001). Markers of immune activation were elevated on all subsets of γδ T cells, and HLA-DR expression was associated with an expansion of Vδ1 γδ T cells (r = 0.73, P = 0.003). Elevated PD-1 expression was found only on Vδ2 γδ T cells (median 1.15% vs 3.08%, P <0.001) and was associated with the decrease of Vδ2 γδ T cells (r = -0.67, P = 0.007). IVIg had no effect on the frequency of Vδ1 and Vδ2 γδ T cells or HLA-DR expression, but alleviated CD38 expression on Vδ1 γδ T cells (median MFI 965 vs 736, P <0.05). These findings suggest that immunological perturbations of γδ T cells are a general feature associated with CVID and are only partially reversed by IVIg therapy.

Subsets of memory CD4+ T cell and bactericidal antibody response to Neisseria meningitidis serogroup C after immunization of HIV-infected children and adolescents.

Meningococcal disease is endemic in Brazil, with periodic outbreaks and case fatality rates reach as high as 18 to 20% of cases. Conjugate vaccines against meningococci are immunogenic in healthy children. However, we have previously shown a poor bactericidal antibody response to a Men C conjugate vaccine in Brazilian HIV-infected children and adolescents after a single vaccine administration. The goal of the present work was to investigate associations between bactericidal antibody response induced by MenC vaccine and the frequency and activation profile (expression of CD38, HLA-DR and CCR5 molecules) of total CD4+ memory T cell sub-populations in HIV-1-infected children and adolescents. Responders to vaccination against MenC had a predominance (about 44%) of CD4+ TINTERMEDIATE subset followed by TTRANSITIONAL memory subset (23 to 26%). Importantly, CD4+ TINT frequency was positively associated with bactericidal antibody response induced by vaccination. The positive correlation persisted despite the observation that the frequency TINT CD38+HLA-DR+ was higher in responders. In contrast, CD4+ TCENTRAL MEMORY (TCM) subset negatively correlated with bactericidal antibodies. In conclusion, these data indicate that less differentiated CD+ T cells, like TCM may be constantly differentiating into intermediate and later differentiated CD4+ T cell subsets. These include CD4 TINT subset which showed a positive association with bactericidal antibodies.

Serum angiopoietin-2 and soluble VEGF receptor 2 are surrogate markers for plasma leakage in patients with acute dengue virus infection.

BACKGROUND: Endothelial cell dysfunction is believed to play an important role in the pathogenesis of plasma leakage in patients with acute dengue virus (DENV) infection. Several factors, produced by activated endothelial cells, have been associated with plasma leakage or severe disease in patients with infectious diseases. OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to investigate which of these markers could serve as a surrogate marker for the occurrence of plasma leakage in patients with acute DENV infection. STUDY DESIGN: A case-control study was performed in patients with acute DENV infection in Santos, Brazil. Plasma leakage was detected with X-ray and/or ultrasound examination at admission. Serum levels of soluble endoglin, endothelin-1, angiopoietin-2, VEGF, soluble VEGFR-2, MMP-2, MMP-9, TIMP-1 and TIMP-2 were determined using commercially available ELISAs. RESULTS: Increased levels of angiopoietin-2, endothelin-1 and MMP-2 and decreased levels of soluble VEGFR-2 were significantly associated with the occurrence of plasma leakage. An unsupervised cluster analysis confirmed that angiopoietin-2 and soluble VEGFR-2 were strongly associated with clinical apparent vascular leakage. CONCLUSION: Angiopoietin-2 and soluble VEGFR-2 can serve as surrogate markers for the occurrence of plasma leakage in patients with acute DENV infection.

IVIg immune reconstitution treatment alleviates the state of persistent immune activation and suppressed CD4 T cell counts in CVID.

Common variable immunodeficiency (CVID) is characterized by defective B cell function, impaired antibody production, and increased susceptibility to bacterial infections. Here, we addressed the hypothesis that poor antibody-mediated immune control of infections may result in substantial perturbations in the T cell compartment. Newly diagnosed CVID patients were sampled before, and 6-12 months after, initiation of intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg) therapy. Treatment-naïve CVID patients displayed suppressed CD4 T cell counts and myeloid dendritic cell (mDC) levels, as well as high levels of immune activation in CD8 T cells, CD4 T cells, and invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells. Expression of co-stimulatory receptors CD80 and CD83 was elevated in mDCs and correlated with T cell activation. Levels of both FoxP3+ T regulatory (Treg) cells and iNKT cells were low, whereas soluble CD14 (sCD14), indicative of monocyte activation, was elevated. Importantly, immune reconstitution treatment with IVIg partially restored the CD4 T cell and mDC compartments. Treatment furthermore reduced the levels of CD8 T cell activation and mDC activation, whereas levels of Treg cells and iNKT cells remained low. Thus, primary deficiency in humoral immunity with impaired control of microbial infections is associated with significant pathological changes in cell-mediated immunity. Furthermore, therapeutic enhancement of humoral immunity with IVIg infusions alleviates several of these defects, indicating a relationship between poor antibody-mediated immune control of infections and the occurrence of abnormalities in the T cell and mDC compartments. These findings help our understanding of the immunopathogenesis of primary immunodeficiency, as well as acquired immunodeficiency caused by HIV-1 infection.

Early immunologic and virologic predictors of clinical HIV-1 disease progression.

OBJECTIVE: To identify early determinants of HIV-1 disease progression, which could potentially enable individualized patient treatment, and provide correlates of progression applicable as reference phenotypes to evaluate breakthrough infections in vaccine development. DESIGN: High-throughput technologies were employed to interrogate multiple parameters on cryopreserved, retrospective peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) samples from 51 individuals from São Paulo, Brazil, obtained within 1 year of diagnosing early Clade B HIV-1 infection. Fast Progressors, Slow Progressors, and Controllers were identified based on a 2-year clinical follow-up. METHODS: Phenotypic and functional T-cell parameters were tested by flow cytometry and qPCR to identify potential early determinants of subsequent HIV-1 disease progression. RESULTS: Major differences were observed between Controllers and Progressors, especially in cell-associated viral load (CAVL), the differentiation pattern and CD38 expression of CD8 T cells, and the cytokine pattern and activation phenotype of HIV-1-specific CD8 T cells. Despite remarkably few other differences between the two Progressor groups, the CAVL had predictive power independent of plasma viral load. CONCLUSION: Analysis of three parameters (% CD38 CD8 T cells, total CAVL, % CCR5 CD8 T cells) was sufficient to predict subsequent disease progression (P < 0.001). Use of such prognostic correlates may be crucial when early CD4 T-cell counts and plasma viral load levels fail to discriminate among groups with differing subsequent clinical progression.

Expansion in CD39⁺ CD4⁺ immunoregulatory t cells and rarity of Th17 cells in HTLV-1 infected patients is associated with neurological complications.

HTLV-1 infection is associated with several inflammatory disorders, including the neurodegenerative condition HTLV-1-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP). It is unclear why a minority of infected subjects develops HAM/TSP. CD4⁺ T cells are the main target of infection and play a pivotal role in regulating immunity to HTLV and are hypothesized to participate in the pathogenesis of HAM/TSP. The CD39 ectonucleotidase receptor is expressed on CD4⁺ T cells and based on co-expression with CD25, marks T cells with distinct regulatory (CD39⁺CD25⁺) and effector (CD39⁺CD25⁻) function. Here, we investigated the expression of CD39 on CD4⁺ T cells from a cohort of HAM/TSP patients, HTLV-1 asymptomatic carriers (AC), and matched uninfected controls. The frequency of CD39⁺ CD4⁺ T cells was increased in HTLV-1 infected patients, regardless of clinical status. More importantly, the proportion of the immunostimulatory CD39⁺CD25⁻ CD4⁺ T-cell subset was significantly elevated in HAM/TSP patients as compared to AC and phenotypically had lower levels of the immunoinhibitory receptor, PD-1. We saw no difference in the frequency of CD39⁺CD25⁺ regulatory (Treg) cells between AC and HAM/TSP patients. However, these cells transition from being anergic to displaying a polyfunctional cytokine response following HTLV-1 infection. CD39⁻CD25⁺ T cell subsets predominantly secreted the inflammatory cytokine IL-17. We found that HAM/TSP patients had significantly fewer numbers of IL-17 secreting CD4⁺ T cells compared to uninfected controls. Taken together, we show that the expression of CD39 is upregulated on CD4⁺ T cells HAM/TSP patients. This upregulation may play a role in the development of the proinflammatory milieu through pathways both distinct and separate among the different CD39 T cell subsets. CD39 upregulation may therefore serve as a surrogate diagnostic marker of progression and could potentially be a target for interventions to reduce the development of HAM/TSP.

Microbial translocation is associated with extensive immune activation in dengue virus infected patients with severe disease.

BACKGROUND: Severe dengue virus (DENV) disease is associated with extensive immune activation, characterized by a cytokine storm. Previously, elevated lipopolysaccharide (LPS) levels in dengue were found to correlate with clinical disease severity. In the present cross-sectional study we identified markers of microbial translocation and immune activation, which are associated with severe manifestations of DENV infection. METHODS: Serum samples from DENV-infected patients were collected during the outbreak in 2010 in the State of São Paulo, Brazil. Levels of LPS, lipopolysaccharide binding protein (LBP), soluble CD14 (sCD14) and IgM and IgG endotoxin core antibodies were determined by ELISA. Thirty cytokines were quantified using a multiplex luminex system. Patients were classified according to the 2009 WHO classification and the occurrence of plasma leakage/shock and hemorrhage. Moreover, a (non-supervised) cluster analysis based on the expression of the quantified cytokines was applied to identify groups of patients with similar cytokine profiles. Markers of microbial translocation were linked to groups with similar clinical disease severity and clusters with similar cytokine profiles. RESULTS: Cluster analysis indicated that LPS levels were significantly increased in patients with a profound pro-inflammatory cytokine profile. LBP and sCD14 showed significantly increased levels in patients with severe disease in the clinical classification and in patients with severe inflammation in the cluster analysis. With both the clinical classification and the cluster analysis, levels of IL-6, IL-8, sIL-2R, MCP-1, RANTES, HGF, G-CSF and EGF were associated with severe disease. CONCLUSIONS: The present study provides evidence that both microbial translocation and extensive immune activation occur during severe DENV infection and may play an important role in the pathogenesis.

Expansion of a subset of CD14highCD16negCCR2low/neg monocytes functionally similar to myeloid-derived suppressor cells during SIV and HIV infection.

Monocytes have been categorized in three main subpopulations based on CD14 and CD16 surface expression. Classical monocytes express the CD14(++)CD16(-)CCR2(+) phenotype and migrate to inflammatory sites by quickly responding to CCL2 signaling. Here, we identified and characterized the expansion of a novel monocyte subset during HIV and SIV infection, which were undistinguishable from classical monocytes, based on CD14 and CD16 expression, but expressed significantly lower surface CCR2. Transcriptome analysis of sorted cells demonstrated that the CCR2(low/neg) cells are a distinct subpopulation and express lower levels of inflammatory cytokines and activation markers than their CCR2(high) counterparts. They exhibited impaired phagocytosis and greatly diminished chemotaxis in response to CCL2 and CCL7. In addition, these monocytes are refractory to SIV infection and suppress CD8(+) T cell proliferation in vitro. These cells express higher levels of STAT3 and NOS2, suggesting a phenotype similar to monocytic myeloid-derived cells, which suppress expansion of CD8(+) T cells in vivo. They may reflect an antiproliferative response against the extreme immune activation observed during HIV and SIV infections. In addition, they may suppress antiviral responses and thus, have a role in AIDS pathogenesis. Antiretroviral therapy in infected macaque and human subjects caused this population to decline, suggesting that this atypical phenotype is linked to viral replication.

HTLV-1 tax specific CD8+ T cells express low levels of Tim-3 in HTLV-1 infection: implications for progression to neurological complications.

The T cell immunoglobulin mucin 3 (Tim-3) receptor is highly expressed on HIV-1-specific T cells, rendering them partially "exhausted" and unable to contribute to the effective immune mediated control of viral replication. To elucidate novel mechanisms contributing to the HTLV-1 neurological complex and its classic neurological presentation called HAM/TSP (HTLV-1 associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis), we investigated the expression of the Tim-3 receptor on CD8(+) T cells from a cohort of HTLV-1 seropositive asymptomatic and symptomatic patients. Patients diagnosed with HAM/TSP down-regulated Tim-3 expression on both CD8(+) and CD4(+) T cells compared to asymptomatic patients and HTLV-1 seronegative controls. HTLV-1 Tax-specific, HLA-A*02 restricted CD8(+) T cells among HAM/TSP individuals expressed markedly lower levels of Tim-3. We observed Tax expressing cells in both Tim-3(+) and Tim-3(-) fractions. Taken together, these data indicate that there is a systematic downregulation of Tim-3 levels on T cells in HTLV-1 infection, sustaining a profoundly highly active population of potentially pathogenic T cells that may allow for the development of HTLV-1 complications.

Skewed distribution of circulating activated natural killer T (NKT) cells in patients with common variable immunodeficiency disorders (CVID).

Common variable immunodeficiency disorder (CVID) is the commonest cause of primary antibody failure in adults and children, and characterized clinically by recurrent bacterial infections and autoimmune manifestations. Several innate immune defects have been described in CVID, but no study has yet investigated the frequency, phenotype or function of the key regulatory cell population, natural killer T (NKT) cells. We measured the frequencies and subsets of NKT cells in patients with CVID and compared these to healthy controls. Our results show a skewing of NKT cell subsets, with CD4+ NKT cells at higher frequencies, and CD8+ NKT cells at lower frequencies. However, these cells were highly activated and expression CD161. The NKT cells had a higher expression of CCR5 and concomitantly expression of CCR5+CD69+CXCR6 suggesting a compensation of the remaining population of NKT cells for rapid effector action.

Characterization of Dengue virus type 2: new insights on the 2010 Brazilian epidemic.

Dengue viruses (DENV) serotypes 1, 2, and 3 have been causing yearly outbreaks in Brazil. In this study, we report the re-introduction of DENV2 in the coast of São Paulo State. Partial envelope viral genes were sequenced from eighteen patients with dengue fever during the 2010 epidemic. Phylogenetic analysis showed this strain belongs to the American/Asian genotype and was closely related to the virus that circulated in Rio de Janeiro in 2007 and 2008. The phylogeny also showed no clustering by clinical presentation, suggesting that the disease severity could not be explained by distinct variants or genotypes. The time of the most recent common ancestor of American/Asian genotype and the São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro (SP/RJ) monophyletic cluster was estimated to be around 40 and 10 years, respectively. Since this virus was first identified in Brazil in 2007, we suggest that it was already circulating in the country before causing the first documented outbreak. This is the first description of the 2010 outbreak in the State of São Paulo, Brazil, and should contribute to efforts to control and monitor the spread of DENVs in endemic areas.