Hyperglycemia impairs EAAT2 glutamate transporter trafficking and glutamate clearance in islets of Langerhans: implications for type 2 diabetes pathogenesis and treatment.

Pancreatic endocrine cells employ a sophisticated system of paracrine and autocrine signals to synchronize their activities, including glutamate, which controls hormone release and ß-cell viability by acting on glutamate receptors expressed by endocrine cells. We here investigate whether alteration of the excitatory amino acid transporter 2 (EAAT2), the major glutamate clearance system in the islet, may occur in type 2 diabetes mellitus and contribute to ß-cell dysfunction. Increased EAAT2 intracellular localization was evident in islets of Langerhans from T2DM subjects as compared with healthy control subjects, despite similar expression levels. Chronic treatment of islets from healthy donors with high-glucose concentrations led to the transporter internalization in vesicular compartments and reduced [H3]-d-glutamate uptake (65 ± 5% inhibition), phenocopying the findings in T2DM pancreatic sections. The transporter relocalization was associated with decreased Akt phosphorylation protein levels, suggesting an involvement of the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt pathway in the process. In line with this, PI3K inhibition by a 100-µM LY294002 treatment in human and clonal ß-cells caused the transporter relocalization in intracellular compartments and significantly reduced the glutamate uptake compared to control conditions, suggesting that hyperglycemia changes the trafficking of the transporter to the plasma membrane. Upregulation of the glutamate transporter upon treatment with the antibiotic ceftriaxone rescued hyperglycemia-induced ß-cells dysfunction and death. Our data underscore the significance of EAAT2 in regulating islet physiology and provide a rationale for potential therapeutic targeting of this transporter to preserve ß-cell survival and function in diabetes.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The glutamate transporter SLC1A2/excitatory amino acid transporter 2 (EAAT2) is expressed on the plasma membrane of pancreatic ß-cells and controls islet glutamate clearance and ß-cells survival. We found that the EAAT2 membrane expression is lost in the islets of Langerhans from type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) patients due to hyperglycemia-induced downregulation of the phosphoinositide 3-kinase/Akt pathway and modification of its intracellular trafficking. Pharmacological rescue of EAAT2 expression prevents ß-cell dysfunction and death, suggesting EAAT2 as a new potential target of intervention in T2DM.

The Lepidopteran KAAT1 and CAATCH1: Orthologs to Understand Structure-Function Relationships in Mammalian SLC6 Transporters.

To the SLC6 family belong 20 human transporters that utilize the sodium electrochemical gradient to move biogenic amines, osmolytes, amino acids and related compounds into cells. They are classified into two functional groups, the Neurotransmitter transporters (NTT) and Nutrient amino acid transporters (NAT). Here we summarize how since their first cloning in 1998, the insect (Lepidopteran) Orthologs of the SLC6 family transporters have represented very important tools for investigating functional-structural relationships, mechanism of transport, ion and pH dependence and substate interaction of the mammalian (and human) counterparts.

Dictyostelium Nramp1, which is structurally and functionally similar to mammalian DMT1 transporter, mediates phagosomal iron efflux.

The Nramp (Slc11) protein family is widespread in bacteria and eukaryotes, and mediates transport of divalent metals across cellular membranes. The social amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum has two Nramp proteins. Nramp1, like its mammalian ortholog (SLC11A1), is recruited to phagosomal and macropinosomal membranes, and confers resistance to pathogenic bacteria. Nramp2 is located exclusively in the contractile vacuole membrane and controls, synergistically with Nramp1, iron homeostasis. It has long been debated whether mammalian Nramp1 mediates iron import or export from phagosomes. By selectively loading the iron-chelating fluorochrome calcein in macropinosomes, we show that Dictyostelium Nramp1 mediates iron efflux from macropinosomes in vivo. To gain insight in ion selectivity and the transport mechanism, the proteins were expressed in Xenopus oocytes. Using a novel assay with calcein, and electrophysiological and radiochemical assays, we show that Nramp1, similar to rat DMT1 (also known as SLC11A2), transports Fe(2+) and manganese, not Fe(3+) or copper. Metal ion transport is electrogenic and proton dependent. By contrast, Nramp2 transports only Fe(2+) in a non-electrogenic and proton-independent way. These differences reflect evolutionary divergence of the prototypical Nramp2 protein sequence compared to the archetypical Nramp1 and DMT1 proteins.

Neurotransmitters and Neuropeptides: New Players in the Control of Islet of Langerhans' Cell Mass and Function.

Islets of Langerhans control whole body glucose homeostasis, as they respond, releasing hormones, to changes in nutrient concentrations in the blood stream. The regulation of hormone secretion has been the focus of attention for a long time because it is related to many metabolic disorders, including diabetes mellitus. Endocrine cells of the islet use a sophisticate system of endocrine, paracrine and autocrine signals to synchronize their activities. These signals provide a fast and accurate control not only for hormone release but also for cell differentiation and survival, key aspects in islet physiology and pathology. Among the different categories of paracrine/autocrine signals, this review highlights the role of neurotransmitters and neuropeptides. In a manner similar to neurons, endocrine cells synthesize, accumulate, release neurotransmitters in the islet milieu, and possess receptors able to decode these signals. In this review, we provide a comprehensive description of neurotransmitter/neuropetide signaling pathways present within the islet. Then, we focus on evidence supporting the concept that neurotransmitters/neuropeptides and their receptors are interesting new targets to preserve ß-cell function and mass. A greater understanding of how this network of signals works in physiological and pathological conditions would advance our knowledge of islet biology and physiology and uncover potentially new areas of pharmacological intervention. J. Cell. Physiol. 231: 756-767, 2016. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Stimulation of Eryptosis, the Suicidal Erythrocyte Death by Piceatannol.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Piceatannol, an analog and metabolite of resveratrol, is effective against various disorders including malignancy. It is in part effective by triggering suicidal death or apoptosis of tumor cells. Cellular mechanisms mediating the proapoptotic effect of Piceatannol include mitochondrial depolarization and cytochrome c release. Erythrocytes lack mitochondria but may nevertheless enter suicidal death or eryptosis, which is characterized by cell shrinkage and cell membrane scrambling with phosphatidylserine translocation to the erythrocyte surface. Cellular mechanisms involved in the triggering of eryptosis include increase of cytosolic Ca2+ activity ([Ca2+]i), oxidative stress and ceramide formation. The present study explored, whether Piceatannol induces eryptosis and, if so, to shed some light on the cellular mechanisms involved. METHODS: Phosphatidylserine exposure at the cell surface was estimated from annexin-V-binding, cell volume from forward scatter, [Ca2+]i from Fluo3-fluorescence, reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation from 2',7'-dichlorodihydrofluorescein (DCF) diacetate-dependent fluorescence, and ceramide abundance utilizing specific antibodies. Hemoglobin concentration in the supernatant was taken as measure of hemolysis. RESULTS: A 48 hours exposure of human erythrocytes to Piceatannol (10 - 20 µM) significantly increased the percentage of annexin-V-binding cells, significantly decreased forward scatter, significantly increased DCFDA-fluorescence, significantly increased ceramide abundance, but did not significantly increase Fluo3-fluorescence. Removal of extracellular Ca2+ slightly blunted but did not abolish the effect of Piceatannol on annexin-V-binding and forward scatter. Piceatannol (20 µM) significantly augmented the increase of annexin-V-binding, but significantly blunted the decrease of forward scatter following treatment with the Ca2+ ionophore ionomycin. CONCLUSIONS: Piceatannol triggers cell shrinkage and phospholipid scrambling of the erythrocyte cell membrane, an effect at least in part downstream of Ca2+ and involving oxidative stress and ceramide formation.

Stimulating Effect of Terfenadine on Erythrocyte Cell Membrane Scrambling.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: The antihistaminic drug Terfenadine may trigger apoptosis of tumor cells, an effect unrelated to its effect on histamine receptors. Similar to apoptosis of nucleated cells, erythrocytes may enter eryptosis, the suicidal death of erythrocytes characterized by cell shrinkage and cell membrane scrambling with phosphatidylserine translocation to the erythrocyte surface. Signaling triggering eryptosis include increase of cytosolic Ca2+ activity ([Ca2+]i), oxidative stress, and ceramide. The present study explored, whether Terfenadine is capable to trigger eryptosis. METHODS: Flow cytometry was employed to estimate phosphatidylserine abundance at the erythrocyte surface from annexin-V-binding, cell volume from forward scatter, [Ca2+]i from Fluo3-fluorescence, abundance of reactive oxygen species (ROS) from 2',7'-dichlorodihydrofluorescein (DCF) diacetate dependent fluorescence, and ceramide abundance at the human erythrocyte surface utilizing specific antibodies. Hemolysis was quantified from haemoglobin concentration in the supernatant. RESULTS: A 48 hours exposure of human erythrocytes to Terfenadine (≥ 5 µM) significantly increased the percentage of annexin-V-binding cells and triggered hemolysis without significantly modifying the average forward scatter. Terfenadine (7.5 µM) significantly increased Fluo3-fluorescence, but did not significantly modify DCF fluorescence or ceramide abundance. The effect of Terfenadine on annexin-V-binding was significantly blunted but not abolished by removal of extracellular Ca2+. Exposure of human erythrocytes to Ca2+ ionophore ionomycin (1 µM, 15 min) triggered annexin-V-binding, an effect augmented by Terfenadine pretreatment (10 µM, 48 hours). CONCLUSIONS: Terfenadine triggers phospholipid scrambling of the human erythrocyte cell membrane, an effect in part due to entry of extracellular Ca2+ and in part due to sensitizing human erythrocyte cell membrane scrambling to Ca2+.

Stimulation of Eryptosis by Combretastatin A4 Phosphate Disodium (CA4P).

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Combretastatin A4 phosphate disodium (CA4P) is utilized for the treatment of malignancy. The substance has previously been shown to trigger suicidal cell death or apoptosis. Similar to apoptosis of nucleated cells, erythrocytes may enter suicidal death or eryptosis, characterized by cell shrinkage and cell membrane scrambling with phosphatidylserine translocation to the erythrocyte surface. Stimulators of eryptosis include increase of cytosolic Ca2+ activity ([Ca2+]i), ceramide, oxidative stress and ATP depletion. The present study explored, whether CA4P induces eryptosis and, if so, to gain insight into mechanisms involved. METHODS: Flow cytometry has been employed to estimate phosphatidylserine exposure at the cell surface from annexin-V-binding, cell volume from forward scatter, [Ca2+]i from Fluo3-fluorescence, reactive oxygen species (ROS) abundance from DCF fluorescence, glutathione (GSH) abundance from CMF fluorescence and ceramide abundance from fluorescent antibodies. In addition cytosolic ATP levels were quantified utilizing a luciferin-luciferase-based assay and hemolysis was estimated from hemoglobin concentration in the supernatant. RESULTS: A 48 hours exposure of human erythrocytes to CA4P (≥ 50 µM) significantly increased the percentage of annexin-V-binding cells and significantly decreased forward scatter. CA4P did not appreciably increase hemolysis. Hundred µM CA4P significantly increased Fluo3-fluorescence. The effect of CA4P (100 µM) on annexin-V-binding was significantly blunted, but not abolished, by removal of extracellular Ca2+. CA4P (≥ 50 µM) significantly decreased GSH abundance and ATP levels but did not significantly increase ROS or ceramide. CONCLUSIONS: CA4P triggers cell shrinkage and phospholipid scrambling of the erythrocyte cell membrane, an effect at least in part due to entry of extracellular Ca2+ and energy depletion.

Nocodazole Induced Suicidal Death of Human Erythrocytes.

BACKGROUND: The microtubule assembly inhibitor nocodazole has been shown to trigger caspase-independent mitotic death and caspase dependent apoptosis. Similar to apoptosis of nucleated cells, erythrocytes may undergo eryptosis, the suicidal erythrocyte death characterized by cell shrinkage and cell membrane scrambling with phosphatidylserine translocation to the erythrocyte surface. Stimulators of eryptosis include increase of cytosolic Ca2+ activity ([Ca2+]i), oxidative stress and ceramide. The present study explored, whether and how nocodazole induces eryptosis. METHODS: Flow cytometry was employed to determine phosphatidylserine exposure at the cell surface from annexin-V-binding, cell volume from forward scatter, [Ca2+]i from Fluo3-fluorescence, the abundance of reactive oxygen species (ROS) from 2',7'-dichlorodihydrofluorescein (DCF) diacetate dependent fluorescence as well as ceramide surface abundance utilizing specific antibodies. Tubulin abundance was quantified by TubulinTracker™ Green reagent and visualized by confocal microscopy. RESULTS: A 48 hours exposure of human erythrocytes to nocodazole (≥ 30 µg/ml) significantly increased the percentage of annexin-V-binding cells without significantly modifying average forward scatter. Nocodazole significantly increased Fluo3-fluorescence, significantly increased DCF fluorescence and significantly increased ceramide surface abundance. The effect of nocodazole on annexin-V-binding was significantly blunted, but not abolished by removal of extracellular Ca2+ and was not modified in the presence of Caspase 3 inhibitor zVAD (1 µM). Nocodazole treatment reduced the content of total tubulin. CONCLUSIONS: Nocodazole triggers cell shrinkage and phospholipid scrambling of the erythrocyte cell membrane, an effect in part due to stimulation of Ca2+ entry, oxidative stress and ceramide.

Triggering of Suicidal Erythrocyte Death by Pazopanib.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: The multi-targeted kinase inhibitor pazopanib, a drug employed for the treatment of a wide variety of malignancies, has previously been shown to trigger apoptosis. Similar to apoptosis of nucleated cells, erythrocytes may enter suicidal death or eryptosis, characterized by cell shrinkage and cell membrane scrambling with phosphatidylserine translocation to the erythrocyte surface. Mechanisms involved in the triggering of eryptosis include Ca2+ entry, oxidative stress and ceramide. The present study explored, whether pazopanib induces eryptosis and, if so, whether it is effective by Ca2+ entry, oxidative stress and/or ceramide. METHODS: Phosphatidylserine exposure at the cell surface was estimated from annexin-V-binding, cell volume from forward scatter, reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation from DCF dependent fluorescence, and ceramide abundance utilizing specific antibodies. RESULTS: A 48 hours exposure of human erythrocytes to pazopanib significantly increased the percentage of annexin-V-binding (≥ 25 µg/ml) and of shrunken erythrocytes (≥ 50 µg/ml). Pazopanib treatment further resulted in significant hemolysis (≥ 25 µg/ml). The effect of pazopanib on annexin-V-binding was significantly blunted but not abolished by removal of extracellular Ca2+. Pazopanib significantly increased DCF fluorescence (50 µg/ml) and ceramide abundance (50 µg/ml). CONCLUSIONS: Pazopanib triggers eryptosis, an effect involving Ca2+ entry, oxidative stress and ceramide.

Ceranib-2-induced suicidal erythrocyte death.

Ceramide is known to trigger apoptosis of nucleated cells and eryptosis of erythrocytes. Eryptosis is characterized by cell shrinkage and cell membrane scrambling with phosphatidylserine translocation to the erythrocyte surface. Besides ceramide, stimulators of eryptosis include increase of cytosolic Ca(2+) -activity ([Ca(2+) ]i ) and oxidative stress. Ceramide is degraded by acid ceramidase and inhibition of the enzyme similarly triggers apoptosis. The present study explored, whether ceramidase inhibitor Ceranib-2 induces eryptosis. Flow cytometry was employed to quantify phosphatidylserine-exposure at the cell surface from annexin-V-binding, cell volume from forward scatter, [Ca(2+) ]i from Fluo3-fluorescence, reactive oxygen species (ROS) from DCF dependent fluorescence, and ceramide abundance utilizing specific antibodies. Hemolysis was estimated from hemoglobin concentration in the supernatant. A 48 h exposure of human erythrocytes to Ceranib-2 significantly increased the percentage of annexin-V-binding cells (≥50 µM) and the percentage of hemolytic cells (≥10 µM) without significantly modifying forward scatter. Ceranib-2 significantly increased Fluo3-fluorescence, DCF fluorescence and ceramide abundance. The effect of Ceranib-2 on annexin-V-binding was not significantly blunted by removal of extracellular Ca(2+) . Ceranib-2 triggers phospholipid scrambling of the erythrocyte cell membrane, an effect at least in part due to increase of ceramide abundance and induction of oxidative stress, but not dependent on Ca(2+) entry. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Imaging of Xenopus laevis oocyte plasma membrane in physiological-like conditions by atomic force microscopy.

Xenopus laevis oocytes are an interesting model for the study of many developmental mechanisms because of their dimensions and the ease with which they can be manipulated. In addition, they are widely employed systems for the expression and functional study of heterologous proteins, which can be expressed with high efficiency on their plasma membrane. Here we applied atomic force microscopy (AFM) to the study of the plasma membrane of X. laevis oocytes. In particular, we developed and optimized a new sample preparation protocol, based on the purification of plasma membranes by ultracentrifugation on a sucrose gradient, to perform a high-resolution AFM imaging of X. laevis oocyte plasma membrane in physiological-like conditions. Reproducible AFM topographs allowed visualization and dimensional characterization of membrane patches, whose height corresponds to a single lipid bilayer, as well as the presence of nanometer structures embedded in the plasma membrane and identified as native membrane proteins. The described method appears to be an applicable tool for performing high-resolution AFM imaging of X. laevis oocyte plasma membrane in a physiological-like environment, thus opening promising perspectives for studying in situ cloned membrane proteins of relevant biomedical/pharmacological interest expressed in this biological system.

Cholesterol Redistribution in Pancreatic ß-Cells: A Flexible Path to Regulate Insulin Secretion.

Pancreatic ß-cells, by secreting insulin, play a key role in the control of glucose homeostasis, and their dysfunction is the basis of diabetes development. The metabolic milieu created by high blood glucose and lipids is known to play a role in this process. In the last decades, cholesterol has attracted significant attention, not only because it critically controls ß-cell function but also because it is the target of lipid-lowering therapies proposed for preventing the cardiovascular complications in diabetes. Despite the remarkable progress, understanding the molecular mechanisms responsible for cholesterol-mediated ß-cell function remains an open and attractive area of investigation. Studies indicate that ß-cells not only regulate the total cholesterol level but also its redistribution within organelles, a process mediated by vesicular and non-vesicular transport. The aim of this review is to summarize the most current view of how cholesterol homeostasis is maintained in pancreatic ß-cells and to provide new insights on the mechanisms by which cholesterol is dynamically distributed among organelles to preserve their functionality. While cholesterol may affect virtually any activity of the ß-cell, the intent of this review is to focus on early steps of insulin synthesis and secretion, an area still largely unexplored.

Pancreatic PCSK9 controls the organization of the ß-cell secretory pathway via LDLR-cholesterol axis.

BACKGROUND: Cholesterol is central to pancreatic ß-cell physiology and alterations of its homeostasis contribute to ß-cell dysfunction and diabetes. Proper intracellular cholesterol levels are maintained by different mechanisms including uptake via the low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR). In the liver, the proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) routes the LDLR to lysosomes for degradation, thus limiting its recycling to the membrane. PCSK9 is also expressed in the pancreas and loss of function mutations of PCSK9 result in higher plasma glucose levels and increased risk of Type 2 diabetes mellitus. Aim of this study was to investigate whether PCSK9 also impacts ß-cells function. METHODS: Pancreas-specific Pcsk9 null mice (Pdx1Cre/Pcsk9 fl/fl) were generated and characterized for glucose tolerance, insulin release and islet morphology. Isolated Pcsk9-deficient islets and clonal ß-cells (INS1E) were employed to characterize the molecular mechanisms of PCSK9 action. RESULTS: Pdx1Cre/Pcsk9 fl/fl mice exhibited normal blood PCSK9 and cholesterol levels but were glucose intolerant and had defective insulin secretion in vivo. Analysis of PCSK9-deficient islets revealed comparable ß-cell mass and insulin content but impaired stimulated secretion. Increased proinsulin/insulin ratio, modifications of SNARE proteins expression and decreased stimulated­calcium dynamics were detected in PCSK9-deficient ß-cells. Mechanistically, pancreatic PCSK9 silencing impacts ß-cell LDLR expression and cholesterol content, both in vivo and in vitro. The key role of LDLR is confirmed by the demonstration that LDLR downregulation rescued the phenotype. CONCLUSIONS: These findings establish pancreatic PCSK9 as a novel critical regulator of the functional maturation of the ß-cell secretory pathway, via modulation of cholesterol homeostasis.

GABA reverse transport by the neuronal cotransporter GAT1: influence of internal chloride depletion.

The role of intracellular ions on the reverse GABA transport by the neuronal transporter GAT1 was studied using voltage-clamp and [(3)H]GABA efflux determinations in Xenopus oocytes transfected with heterologous mRNA. Reverse transport was induced by intracellular GABA injections and measured in terms of the net outward current generated by the transporter. Changes in various intracellular ionic conditions affected the reverse current: higher concentrations of Na(+) enhanced the ratio of outward over inward transport current, while a considerable decrease of the outward current and a parallel reduction of the transporter-mediated GABA efflux were observed after treatments causing a diminution of the intracellular Cl(-) concentration. Particularly interesting was the impairment of the reverse transport observed after depletion of internal Cl(-) generated by the activity of a coexpressed K(+)-Cl(-) exporter KCC2. This finding suggests that reverse GABA transport may be physiologically regulated during early neuronal development, similarly to the functional alterations seen in GABA receptors caused by KCC2 activity.

Iron Metabolism in Pancreatic Beta-Cell Function and Dysfunction.

Iron is an essential element involved in a variety of physiological functions. In the pancreatic beta-cells, being part of Fe-S cluster proteins, it is necessary for the correct insulin synthesis and processing. In the mitochondria, as a component of the respiratory chain, it allows the production of ATP and reactive oxygen species (ROS) that trigger beta-cell depolarization and potentiate the calcium-dependent insulin release. Iron cellular content must be finely tuned to ensure the normal supply but also to prevent overloading. Indeed, due to the high reactivity with oxygen and the formation of free radicals, iron excess may cause oxidative damage of cells that are extremely vulnerable to this condition because the normal elevated ROS production and the paucity in antioxidant enzyme activities. The aim of the present review is to provide insights into the mechanisms responsible for iron homeostasis in beta-cells, describing how alteration of these processes has been related to beta-cell damage and failure. Defects in iron-storing or -chaperoning proteins have been detected in diabetic conditions; therefore, the control of iron metabolism in these cells deserves further investigation as a promising target for the development of new disease treatments.

Characterization of Transport Activity of SLC11 Transporters in Xenopus laevis Oocytes by Fluorophore Quenching.

Membrane proteins are involved in different physiological functions and are the target of pharmaceutical and abuse drugs. Xenopus laevis oocytes provide a powerful heterologous expression system for functional studies of these proteins. Typical experiments investigate transport using electrophysiology and radiolabeled uptake. A two-electrode voltage clamp is suitable only for electrogenic proteins, and uptake measurements require the existence of radiolabeled substrates and adequate laboratory facilities.Recently, Dictyostelium discoideum Nramp1 and NrampB were characterized using multidisciplinary approaches. NrampB showed no measurable electrogenic activity, and it was investigated in Xenopus oocytes by acquiring confocal images of the quenching of injected fluorophore calcein.This method is adequate to measure the variation in emitted fluorescence, and thus transporter activity indirectly, but requires long experimental procedures to collect statistically consistent data. Considering that optimal expression of heterologous proteins lasts for 48-72 h, a slow acquiring process requires the use of more than one batch of oocytes to complete the experiments. Here, a novel approach to measure substrate uptake is reported. Upon injection of a fluorophore, oocytes were incubated with the substrate and the transport activity measured, evaluating fluorescence quenching in a microplate reader. The technique permits the testing of tens of oocytes in different experimental conditions simultaneously, and thus the collection of significant statistical data for each batch, saving time and animals.The method was tested with different metal transporters (SLC11), DMT1, DdNramp1, and DdNrampB, and verified with the peptide transporter PepT1 (SLC15). Comparison with traditional methods (uptake, two-electrode voltage clamp) and with quenching images acquired by fluorescence microscopy confirmed its efficacy.

Passive water permeability of some wild type and mutagenized amino acid cotransporters of the SLC6/NSS family expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes.

In this paper passive water movement across the cell membrane mediated by wild type and mutagenized cotransporters was investigated. We evaluated water movement and, in parallel, amino acid uptake induced by some members of the SLC6/NSS family belonging to different kingdoms, namely the rat GABA transporter GAT1, the insect amino acid transporters KAAT1 and CAATCH1 and the bacterial leucine transporter LeuT, whose structure was recently solved. We also tested whether mutated proteins in which the solute translocation mechanism is altered or even abolished were able to induce water movement across cell membrane. The proteins of interest were expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes and osmotic water permeabilities were estimated from the rate of cell volume change induced by an osmotic gradient in the absence of cotransported solutes. Under osmotic stress all the studied wild type amino acid cotransporters increased the water permeability of the membrane. The GABA transport inhibitor SKF 89976A inhibited both GABA transport and water movement induced by the expression of GAT1. Interestingly, the capacity of mutant proteins to induce water movement was not predictable on the basis of their substrate transport ability. In particular the GAT1 mutant Q291N, void of any transport activity, induced a water permeability similar to that induced by the wt protein. The KAAT1 mutant T339C, which showed a higher transport activity, induced a water permeability not significantly different from the wild type transporter. Interestingly, the bacterial leucine cotransporter LeuT, whose binding site for leucine and Na(+) is void of water, induced water movement through the plasma membrane.

Verbascoside Protects Pancreatic ß-Cells against ER-Stress.

Substantial epidemiological evidence indicates that a diet rich in polyphenols protects against developing type 2 diabetes. The phenylethanoid glycoside verbascoside/acteoside, a widespread polyphenolic plant compound, has several biological properties including strong antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective activities. The aim of this research was to test the possible effects of verbascoside on pancreatic ß-cells, a target never tested before. Mouse and human ß-cells were incubated with verbascoside (0.8-16 µM) for up to five days and a combination of biochemical and imaging techniques were used to assess the ß-cell survival and function under normal or endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-stress inducing conditions. We found a dose-dependent protective effect of verbascoside against oxidative stress in clonal and human ß-cells. Mechanistic studies revealed that the polyphenol protects ß-cells against ER-stress mediated dysfunctions, modulating the activation of the protein kinase RNA-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase (PERK) branch of the unfolded protein response and promoting mitochondrial dynamics. As a result, increased viability, mitochondrial function and insulin content were detected in these cells. These studies provide the evidence that verbascoside boosts the ability of ß-cells to cope with ER-stress, an important contributor of ß-cell dysfunction and failure in diabetic conditions and support the therapeutic potential of verbascoside in diabetes.

The SLC6/NSS family members KAAT1 and CAATCH1 have weak chloride dependence.

KAAT1 and CAATCH1 are amino acid transporters cloned from the intestine of the lepidoptera Manduca sexta. They are members of the SLC6/NSS family, which groups membrane proteins that use Na(+), K(+), and Cl⁻ gradients for the coupled transport of amines and amino acids. The report of the atomic-resolution x-ray crystal structure of the eubacterium Aquifex aeolicus leucine transporter (AaLeuT) has contributed significantly to understanding of the structure-function relationship in NSS proteins. Transport by AaLeuT is Cl⁻ independent, whereas many neurotransmitter:sodium symporters like serotonin transporter (SERT), GABA transporter (GAT1), dopamine transporter, and norephinephrine transporter, among others, are strongly Cl⁻ dependent.

Structural and functional basis of amino acid specificity in the invertebrate cotransporter KAAT1.

The substrate specificity of KAAT1, a Na+- and K+-dependent neutral amino acid cotransporter cloned from the larva of the invertebrate Manduca sexta and belonging to the SLC6A gene family has been investigated using electrophysiological and radiotracer methods. The specificity of KAAT1 was compared to that of CAATCH1, a strictly related transporter with different amino acid selectivity. Competition experiments between different substrates indicate that both transporters bind leucine more strongly than threonine and proline, the difference between KAAT1 and CAATCH1 residing in the incapacity of the latter to complete the transport cycle in presence of leucine. The behaviour of CAATCH1 is mimicked by the S308T mutant form of KAAT1, constructed on the basis of the atomic structure of a leucine-transporting bacterial member of the family, which indicates the participation of this residue in the leucine-binding site. The reverse mutation T308S in CAATCH1 conferred to this transporter the ability to transport leucine in presence of K+. These results may be interpreted by a kinetic scheme in which, in presence of Na+, the leucine-bound state of the transporter is relatively stable, while in presence of K+ and at negative potentials the progression of the leucine-bound form along the cycle is favoured. In this context serine 308 appears to be important in allowing the change to the inward-facing conformation of the transporter following substrate binding, rather than in determining the binding specificity.