The Presence of Periodontitis Exacerbates Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease via Sphingolipid Metabolism-Associated Insulin Resistance and Hepatic Inflammation in Mice with Metabolic Syndrome.

Clinical studies have shown that periodontitis is associated with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). However, it remains unclear if periodontitis contributes to the progression of NAFLD. In this study, we generated a mouse model with high-fat diet (HFD)-induced metabolic syndrome (MetS) and NAFLD and oral P. gingivalis inoculation-induced periodontitis. Results showed that the presence of periodontitis increased insulin resistance and hepatic inflammation and exacerbated the progression of NAFLD. To determine the role of sphingolipid metabolism in the association between NAFLD and periodontitis, we also treated mice with imipramine, an inhibitor of acid sphingomyelinase (ASMase), and demonstrated that imipramine treatment significantly alleviated insulin resistance and hepatic inflammation, and improved NAFLD. Studies performed in vitro showed that lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and palmitic acid (PA), a major saturated fatty acid associated with MetS and NAFLD, synergistically increased the production of ceramide, a bioactive sphingolipid involved in NAFLD progression in macrophages but imipramine effectively reversed the ceramide production stimulated by LPS and PA. Taken together, this study showed for the first time that the presence of periodontitis contributed to the progression of NAFLD, likely due to alterations in sphingolipid metabolism that led to exacerbated insulin resistance and hepatic inflammation. This study also showed that targeting ASMase with imipramine improves NAFLD by reducing insulin resistance and hepatic inflammation.

Porphyromonas gingivalis infection upregulates the endothelin (ET) system in brain microvascular endothelial cells.

Endothelin-1 (ET-1), the most potent vasoconstrictor identified to date, contributes to cerebrovascular dysfunction and brain ET-1 levels were shown to be related to Alzheimer's disease and related dementias (ADRD) progression. ET-1 also contributes to neuroinflammation, especially in infections of the central nervous system. Recent studies causally linked chronic periodontal infection with an opportunistic anaerobic bacterium Porphyromonas gingivalis (Coykendall et al.) Shah & Collins to AD development. Thus, the goal of the study was to determine the impact of P. gingivalis infection on the ET system and cell senescence in brain microvascular endothelial cells. Cells were infected with a multiplicity of infection 50 P. gingivalis with and without extracellular ATP-induced oxidative stress for 24 h. Cell lysates were collected for analysis of endothelin A receptor (ETA)/endothelin B receptor (ETB) receptor as well as senescence markers. ET-1 levels in cell culture media were measured with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. P. gingivalis infection increased ET-1 (pg/mL) secretion, as well as the ETA receptor expression, whereas decreased lamin A/C expression compared to control. Tight junction protein claudin-5 was also decreased under these conditions. ETA or ETB receptor blockade during infection did not affect ET-1 secretion or the expression of cell senescence markers. Current findings suggest that P. gingivalis infection may compromise endothelial integrity and activate the ET system.

Novel Cholera Toxin Variant and ToxT Regulon in Environmental Vibrio mimicus Isolates: Potential Resources for the Evolution of Vibrio cholerae Hybrid Strains.

Atypical El Tor strains of Vibrio cholerae O1 harboring variant ctxB genes of cholera toxin (CT) have gradually become a major cause of recent cholera epidemics. Vibrio mimicus occasionally produces CT, encoded by ctxAB on CTXФ genome; toxin-coregulated pilus (TCP), a major intestinal colonization factor; and also the CTXФ-specific receptor. This study carried out extensive molecular characterization of CTXФ and ToxT regulon in V. mimicusctx-positive (ctx+) strains (i.e., V. mimicus strains containing ctx) isolated from the Bengal coast. Southern hybridization, PCR, and DNA sequencing of virulence-related genes revealed the presence of an El Tor type CTX prophage (CTXET) carrying a novel ctxAB, tandem copies of environmental type pre-CTX prophage (pre-CTXEnv), and RS1 elements, which were organized as an RS1-CTXET-RS1-pre-CTXEnv-pre-CTXEnv array. Additionally, novel variants of tcpA and toxT, respectively, showing phylogenetic lineage to a clade of V. cholerae non-O1 and to a clade of V. cholerae non-O139, were identified. The V. mimicus strains lacked the RTX (repeat in toxin) and TLC (toxin-linked cryptic) elements and lacked Vibrio seventh-pandemic islands of the El Tor strains but contained five heptamer (TTTTGAT) repeats in ctxAB promoter region similar to those seen with some classical strains of V. cholerae O1. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) analysis showed that all the ctx+V. mimicus strains were clonally related. However, their in vitro CT production and in vivo toxigenicity characteristics were variable, which could be explainable by differential transcription of virulence genes along with the ToxR regulon. Taken together, our findings strongly suggest that environmental V. mimicus strains act as a potential reservoir of atypical virulence factors, including variant CT and ToxT regulons, and may contribute to the evolution of V. cholerae hybrid strains.IMPORTANCE Natural diversification of CTXФ and ctxAB genes certainly influences disease severity and shifting patterns in major etiological agents of cholera, e.g., the overwhelming emergence of hybrid El Tor variants, replacing the prototype El Tor strains of V. cholerae This report, showing the occurrence of CTXET comprising a novel variant of ctxAB in V. mimicus, points out a previously unnoticed evolutionary event that is independent of the evolutionary event associated with the El Tor strains of V. cholerae Identification and cluster analysis of the newly discovered alleles of tcpA and toxT suggest their horizontal transfer from an uncommon clone of V. cholerae The genomic contents of ToxT regulon and of tandemly arranged multiple pre-CTXФEnv and of a CTXФET in V. mimicus probably act as salient raw materials that induce natural recombination among the hallmark virulence genes of hybrid V. cholerae strains. This report provides valuable information to enrich our knowledge on the evolution of new variant CT and ToxT regulons.

A novel kinase function of a nucleoside-diphosphate-kinase homologue in Porphyromonas gingivalis is critical in subversion of host cell apoptosis by targeting heat-shock protein 27.

We have previously shown that a homologue of a conserved nucleoside-diphosphate-kinase (Ndk) family of multifunctional enzymes and secreted molecule in Porphyromonas gingivalis can modulate select host molecular pathways including downregulation of reactive-oxygen-species generation to promote bacterial survival in human gingival epithelial cells (GECs). In this study, we describe a novel kinase function for bacterial effector, P. gingivalis-Ndk, in abrogating epithelial cell death by phosphorylating heat-shock protein 27 (HSP27) in GECs. Infection by P. gingivalis was recently suggested to increase phosphorylation of HSP27 in cancer-epithelial cells; however, the mechanism and biological significance of antiapoptotic phospho-HSP27 during infection has never been characterised. Interestingly, using glutathione S-transferase-rNdk pull-down analysed by mass spectrometry, we identified HSP27 in GECs as a strong binder of P. gingivalis-Ndk and further verified using confocal microscopy and ELISA. Therefore, we hypothesised P. gingivalis-Ndk can phosphorylate HSP27 for inhibition of apoptosis in GECs. We further employed P. gingivalis-Ndk protein constructs and an isogenic P. gingivalis-ndk-deficient-mutant strain for functional examination. P. gingivalis-infected GECs displayed significantly increased phospho-HSP27 compared with ndk-deficient-strain during 24 hr infection. Phospho-HSP27 was significantly increased by transfection of GFP-tagged-Ndk into uninfected-GECs, and in vitro phosphorylation assays revealed direct phosphorylation of HSP27 at serines 78 and 82 by P. gingivalis-Ndk. Depletion of HSP27 via siRNA significantly reversed resistance against staurosporine-mediated-apoptosis during infection. Transfection of recombinant P. gingivalis-Ndk protein into GECs substantially decreased staurosporine-induced-apoptosis. Finally, ndk-deficient-mutant strain was unable to inhibit staurosporine-induced Cytochrome C release/Caspase-9 activation. Thus, we show for the first time the phosphorylation of HSP27 by a bacterial effector-P. gingivalis-Ndk-and a novel function of Ndks that is directly involved in inhibition of host cell apoptosis and the subsequent bacterial survival.

Viable but non-culturable and persistence describe the same bacterial stress state.

Bacteria are often thought of as having two dormant phenotypes: the viable but non-culturable (VBNC) state and the persister state. Here we investigate the relatedness of the two stress-induced phenotypes at the single-cell level and examine cell morphology and quantify cell resuscitation. Using the classic starvation conditions to create VBNC cells, we found that the majority of the remaining Escherichia coli population are spherical, have empty cytosol and fail to resuscitate; however, some of the spherical cells resuscitate immediately (most probably those with dense cytosol). Critically, all the culturable cells in this starved population became persister cells within 14 days of starvation. We found that the persister cells initially are rod-like, have clear but limited membrane damage, can resuscitate immediately and gradually become spherical by aging. After 24 h, only rod-shaped persister cells survive, and all the spherical cells lyse. Both cell populations formed under the VBNC-inducing conditions and the persister conditions are metabolically inactive. Therefore, the bacterial population consists of dead cells and persister cells in the VBNC-inducing conditions; that is, the non-lysed particles that do not resuscitate are dead, and the dormant cells that resuscitate are persister cells. Hence, 'VBNC' and 'persister' describe the same dormant phenotype.

DNA-crosslinker cisplatin eradicates bacterial persister cells.

For all bacteria, nearly every antimicrobial fails since a subpopulation of the bacteria enter a dormant state known as persistence, in which the antimicrobials are rendered ineffective due to the lack of metabolism. This tolerance to antibiotics makes microbial infections the leading cause of death worldwide and makes treating chronic infections, including those of wounds problematic. Here, we show that the FDA-approved anti-cancer drug cisplatin [cis-diamminodichloroplatinum(II)], which mainly forms intra-strand DNA crosslinks, eradicates Escherichia coli K-12 persister cells through a growth-independent mechanism. Additionally, cisplatin is more effective at killing Pseudomonas aeruginosa persister cells than mitomycin C, which forms inter-strand DNA crosslinks, and cisplatin eradicates the persister cells of several pathogens including enterohemorrhagic E. coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and P. aeruginosa. Cisplatin was also highly effective against clinical isolates of S. aureus and P. aeruginosa. Therefore, cisplatin has broad spectrum activity against persister cells. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2016;113: 1984-1992. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Combatting bacterial infections by killing persister cells with mitomycin C.

Persister cells are a multi-drug tolerant subpopulation of bacteria that contribute to chronic and recalcitrant clinical infections such as cystic fibrosis and tuberculosis. Persisters are metabolically dormant, so they are highly tolerant to all traditional antibiotics which are mainly effective against actively growing cells. Here, we show that the FDA-approved anti-cancer drug mitomycin C (MMC) eradicates persister cells through a growth-independent mechanism. MMC is passively transported and bioreductively activated, leading to spontaneous cross-linking of DNA, which we verify in both active and dormant cells. We find MMC effectively eradicates cells grown in numerous different growth states (e.g. planktonic cultures and highly robust biofilm cultures) in both rich and minimal media. Additionally, MMC is a potent bactericide for a broad range of bacterial persisters, including commensal Escherichia coli K-12 as well as pathogenic species of E. coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. We also demonstrate the efficacy of MMC in an animal model and a wound model, substantiating the clinical applicability of MMC against bacterial infections. Therefore, MMC is the first broad-spectrum compound capable of eliminating persister cells, meriting investigation as a new approach for the treatment of recalcitrant infections.

Sequence and expression divergence of an ancient duplication of the chaperonin groESEL operon in Vibrio species.

Heat-shock proteins are molecular chaperones essential for protein folding, degradation and trafficking. The human pathogen Vibrio vulnificus encodes a copy of the groESEL operon in both chromosomes and these genes share <80 % similarity with each other. Comparative genomic analysis was used to determine whether this duplication is prevalent among Vibrionaceae specifically or Gammaproteobacteria in general. Among the Vibrionaceae complete genome sequences in the database (31 species), seven Vibrio species contained a copy of groESEL in each chromosome, including the human pathogens Vibrio cholerae, Vibrio parahaemolyticus and V. vulnificus. Phylogenetic analysis of GroEL among the Gammaproteobacteria indicated that GroESEL-1 encoded in chromosome I was the ancestral copy and GroESEL-2 in chromosome II arose by an ancient gene duplication event. Interestingly, outside of the Vibrionaceae within the Gammaproteobacteria, groESEL chromosomal duplications were rare among the 296 genomes examined; only five additional species contained two or more copies. Examination of the expression pattern of groEL from V. vulnificus cells grown under different conditions revealed differential expression between the copies. The data demonstrate that groEL-1 was more highly expressed during growth in exponential phase than groEL-2 and a similar pattern was also found in both V. cholerae and V. parahaemolyticus. Overall these data suggest that retention of both copies of groESEL in Vibrio species may confer an evolutionary advantage.

Glutamate is a key nutrient for Porphyromonas gingivalis growth and survival during intracellular autophagic life under nutritionally limited conditions.

Porphyromonas gingivalis survives in special autophagic vacuoles that serve as major replicative habitats in human primary gingival epithelial cells (GECs). As an asaccharolytic strict anaerobe, P. gingivalis is dependent on amino acids and peptides for nutrient sources. However, it is largely unknown as to P. gingivalis' metabolic processing under the nutritionally limited intracellular environments such the vacuoles, especially the preferred amino acids and associated-metabolic machineries. Here we elucidate that a Glutamate (Glu) catabolic enzyme, glutamate dehydrogenase (GdhA) is highly enriched in the isolated P. gingivalis -containing vacuoles. Interestingly, we found that P. gingivalis induces conversion of intracellular glutamine pool to Glu determined by analyses of the P. gingivalis- containing vacuoles and the whole infected-GECs. Critically, exogenous Glu-Glu dipeptide, a simple precursor of Glu, significantly increases the size of isolated intact P. gingivalis containing-vacuoles and live wild-type P. gingivalis numbers in GECs. In contrast, the isogenic GdhA-deficient-strain, Δ gdhA displayed a significant growth defect with collapsed-vacuoles in GECs. Next, we confirmed that P. gingivalis uptakes 14 C-Glu and it preferentially utilizes Glu-Glu-dipeptide using a nutritionally reduced Tryptic-Soy-Broth (TSB) media supplemented with Glu-Glu. Contrary, Δ gdhA -strain showed no detectable growth especially in nutritionally reduced TSB media with Glu-Glu. Using Atomic-Force-Microscopy, we observed that, wild-type P. gingivalis but not Δ gdhA strain notably increased the cell volume upon Glu-Glu supplementation, an indicator of higher metabolism and growth. Utilization of a human gingiva-mimicking organoid-system further validated the importance of Glu as an essential nutrient for the intramucosal colonization of P. gingivalis via the protected replicative vacuoles in GECs. Importance: This study reveals that P. gingivalis heavily depends on preferential utilization of Glutamate (Glu) for autophagic vacuolar growth and survival in human GECs. Several novel observations are made to support this: (i) GdhA of P. gingivalis is highly enriched in these vacuoles, (ii) P. gingivalis induces a large conversion of intracellular glutamine to Glu, (iii) size of vacuoles are significantly increased in the presence of Glu-Glu in P. gingivalis wild-type strain infection which is opposite in a Δ gdhA strain, (iv) P. gingivalis uptakes 14 C-Glu and preferentially utilizes Glu-Glu dipeptide, (v) similarly, wild-type strain shows growth increase in a nutritionally reduced bacterial culture media, and (vi) finally, Glu-Glu supplementation increases bacterial cell-volume of P. gingivalis wild-type but not Δ gdhA strain, an indicator of higher metabolism and growth. Taken together, this study highlights the pathophysiological importance of Glu for P. gingivalis growth-rate, biomass induction and survival in nutritionally limited host subcellular environments.

Porphyromonas gingivalis activates Heat-Shock-Protein 27 to drive a LC3C-specific probacterial form of select autophagy that is redox sensitive for intracellular bacterial survival in human gingival mucosa.

Porphyromonas gingivalis , a major oral pathobiont, evades canonical host pathogen clearance in human primary gingival epithelial cells (GECs) by initiating a non-canonical variant of autophagy consisting of Microtubule-associated protein 1A/1B-light chain 3 (LC3)-rich autophagosomes, which then act as replicative niches. Simultaneously, P. gingivalis inhibits apoptosis and oxidative-stress, including extracellular-ATP (eATP)-mediated reactive-oxygen-species (ROS) production via phosphorylating Heat Shock Protein 27 (HSp27) with the bacterial nucleoside-diphosphate-kinase (Ndk). Here, we have mechanistically identified that P. gingivalis -mediated induction of HSp27 is crucial for the recruitment of the LC3 isoform, LC3C, to drive the formation of live P. gingivalis -containing Beclin1-ATG14-rich autophagosomes that are redox sensitive and non-degrading. HSp27 depletions of both infected GECs and gingiva-mimicking organotypic-culture systems resulted in the collapse of P. gingivalis -mediated autophagosomes, and abolished P. gingivalis -induced LC3C-specific autophagic-flux in a HSp27-dependent manner. Concurrently, HSp27 depletion accompanied by eATP treatment abrogated protracted Beclin 1-ATG14 partnering and decreased live intracellular P. gingivalis levels. These events were only partially restored via treatments with the antioxidant N-acetyl cysteine (NAC), which rescued the cellular redox environment independent of HSp27. Moreover, the temporal phosphorylation of HSp27 by the bacterial Ndk results in HSp27 tightly partnering with LC3C, hindering LC3C canonical cleavage, extending Beclin 1-ATG14 association, and halting canonical maturation. These findings pinpoint how HSp27 pleiotropically serves as a major platform-molecule, redox regulator, and stepwise modulator of LC3C during P. gingivalis -mediated non-canonical autophagy. Thus, our findings can determine specific molecular strategies for interfering with the host-adapted P. gingivalis ' successful mucosal colonization and oral dysbiosis.

Opportunistic pathogen Porphyromonas gingivalis targets the LC3B-ceramide complex and mediates lethal mitophagy resistance in oral tumors.

Mechanisms by which Porphyromonas gingivalis (P. gingivalis) infection enhances oral tumor growth or resistance to cell death remain elusive. Here, we determined that P. gingivalis infection mediates therapeutic resistance via inhibiting lethal mitophagy in cancer cells and tumors. Mechanistically, P. gingivalis targets the LC3B-ceramide complex by associating with LC3B via bacterial major fimbriae (FimA) protein, preventing ceramide-dependent mitophagy in response to various therapeutic agents. Moreover, ceramide-mediated mitophagy is induced by Annexin A2 (ANXA2)-ceramide association involving the E142 residue of ANXA2. Inhibition of ANXA2-ceramide-LC3B complex formation by wild-type P. gingivalis prevented ceramide-dependent mitophagy. Moreover, a FimA-deletion mutant P. gingivalis variant had no inhibitory effects on ceramide-dependent mitophagy. Further, 16S rRNA sequencing of oral tumors indicated that P. gingivalis infection altered the microbiome of the tumor macroenvironment in response to ceramide analog treatment in mice. Thus, these data provide a mechanism describing the pro-survival roles of P. gingivalis in oral tumors.

Novel cholix toxin variants, ADP-ribosylating toxins in Vibrio cholerae non-O1/non-O139 strains, and their pathogenicity.

Cholix toxin (ChxA) is a recently discovered exotoxin in Vibrio cholerae which has been characterized as a third member of the eukaryotic elongation factor 2-specific ADP-ribosyltransferase toxins, in addition to exotoxin A of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and diphtheria toxin of Corynebacterium diphtheriae. These toxins consist of three characteristic domains for receptor binding, translocation, and catalysis. However, there is little information about the prevalence of chxA and its genetic variations and pathogenic mechanisms. In this study, we screened the chxA gene in a large number (n = 765) of V. cholerae strains and observed its presence exclusively in non-O1/non-O139 strains (27.0%; 53 of 196) and not in O1 (n = 485) or O139 (n = 84). Sequencing of these 53 chxA genes generated 29 subtypes which were grouped into three clusters designated chxA I, chxA II, and chxA III. chxA I belongs to the prototype, while chxA II and chxA III are newly discovered variants. ChxA II and ChxA III had unique receptor binding and catalytic domains, respectively, in comparison to ChxA I. Recombinant ChxA I (rChxA I) and rChxA II but not rChxA III showed variable cytotoxic effects on different eukaryotic cells. Although rChxA II was more lethal to mice than rChxA I when injected intravenously, no enterotoxicity of any rChxA was observed in a rabbit ileal loop test. Hepatocytes showed coagulation necrosis in rChxA I- or rChxA II-treated mice, seemingly the major target for ChxA. The present study illustrates the potential of ChxA as an important virulence factor in non-O1/non-O139 V. cholerae, which may be associated with extraintestinal infections rather than enterotoxicity.

The VC1777-VC1779 proteins are members of a sialic acid-specific subfamily of TRAP transporters (SiaPQM) and constitute the sole route of sialic acid uptake in the human pathogen Vibrio cholerae.

Sialic acids are nine-carbon amino sugars that are present on all mucous membranes and are often used by bacteria as nutrients. In pathogenic Vibrio the genes for sialic acid catabolism (SAC) are known to be important for host colonization, yet the route for sialic acid uptake is not proven. Vibrio cholerae contains a tripartite ATP-independent periplasmic (TRAP) transporter, SiaPQM (VC1777-VC1779), encoded by genes within the Vibrio pathogenicity island-2 (VPI-2), which are adjacent to the SAC genes nanA, nanE and nanK. We demonstrate a correlation of the occurrence of VPI-2 and the ability of Vibrio to grow on the common sialic acid N-acetylneuraminic acid (Neu5Ac), and that a V. cholerae N16961 mutant defective in vc1777, encoding the large membrane protein component of the TRAP transporter, SiaM, is unable to grow on Neu5Ac as the sole carbon source. Using the genome context and known structures of the SiaP protein component of the TRAP transporter, we define a subfamily of Neu5Ac-specific TRAP transporters, of which the vc1777-vc1779 genes are the only representatives in V. cholerae. A recent report has suggested that an entirely different TRAP transporter (VC1927-VC1929) is the Neu5Ac transporter in V. cholerae. Bioinformatics and genomic analysis suggest strongly that this is a C(4)-dicarboxylate-specific TRAP transporter, and indeed disruption of vc1929 results in a defect in growth on C(4)-dicarboxylates but not Neu5Ac. Together these data demonstrate unequivocally that the siaPQM-encoded TRAP transporter within VPI-2 is the sole sialic acid transporter in V. cholerae.

Sialic acid catabolism and transport gene clusters are lineage specific in Vibrio vulnificus.

Sialic or nonulosonic acids are nine-carbon alpha ketosugars that are present in all vertebrate mucous membranes. Among bacteria, the ability to catabolize sialic acid as a carbon source is present mainly in pathogenic and commensal species of animals. Previously, it was shown that several Vibrio species carry homologues of the genes required for sialic acid transport and catabolism, which are genetically linked. In Vibrio cholerae on chromosome I, these genes are carried on the Vibrio pathogenicity island-2 region, which is confined to pathogenic isolates. We found that among the three sequenced Vibrio vulnificus clinical strains, these genes are present on chromosome II and are not associated with a pathogenicity island. To determine whether the sialic acid transport (SAT) and catabolism (SAC) region is universally present within V. vulnificus, we examined 67 natural isolates whose phylogenetic relationships are known. We found that the region was present predominantly among lineage I of V. vulnificus, which is comprised mainly of clinical isolates. We demonstrate that the isolates that contain this region can catabolize sialic acid as a sole carbon source. Two putative transporters are genetically linked to the region in V. vulnificus, the tripartite ATP-independent periplasmic (TRAP) transporter SiaPQM and a component of an ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter. We constructed an in-frame deletion mutation in siaM, a component of the TRAP transporter, and demonstrate that this transporter is essential for sialic acid uptake in this species. Expression analysis of the SAT and SAC genes indicates that sialic acid is an inducer of expression. Overall, our study demonstrates that the ability to catabolize and transport sialic acid is predominately lineage specific in V. vulnificus and that the TRAP transporter is essential for sialic acid uptake.

The prevalence, antimicrobial resistance and PFGE profiles of Laribacter hongkongensis in retail freshwater fish and edible frogs of southern China.

Laribacter hongkongensis is a novel emerging pathogen associated with human gastroenteritis. We aimed to investigate the prevalence, antimicrobial resistance and genotypic relationship of 199 L. hongkongensis isolates from 690 intestinal samples of fish and frogs. These samples were collected from retail markets in the city of Guangzhou in southern China from October 2008 to September 2009. L. hongkongensis was detected in from 80 (16.3%) out of 490 freshwater fish, and this number included 76 (32.3%) out of 235 grass carp and 4 (14.8%) out of 27 bighead carp. A higher isolation rate of 59.5% (119 out of 200) was observed in edible frogs. The isolation rate was highest in the spring in comparison with other seasons. Notably, 63.8% of the isolates were resistant to at least one class of antimicrobial agents. Analysis by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) revealed that the isolates could be grouped into three clusters. Isolates from fish intestines were grouped into two clusters: cluster I and II. Isolates of frog-origin and several fish-origin isolates were grouped into cluster III. Two patient-derived strains could be classed into cluster III. Extensive genetic heterogeneity among the isolates was observed. The results indicate that L. hongkongensis isolates exhibits host tropism, extensive resistance to widely used antimicrobials and diverse biological evolution in an aquatic environment. The frog is more likely than the freshwater fish to be the potential source for human infection with L. hongkongensis.

Identification of Vibrio campbellii isolated from diseased farm-shrimps from south India and establishment of its pathogenic potential in an Artemia model.

Shrimp diseases are frequently reported to be caused by closely related vibrios, and in many cases they are tentatively but inaccurately identified as Vibrio harveyi and related vibrios. In the present study, 28 biochemically identified V. harveyi-related strains isolated from diseased shrimps were randomly selected for further characterization by molecular tools. Twenty-six strains were identified as Vibrio campbellii and two as V. harveyi by sequence analysis of 16S rRNA and uridylate kinase genes. Haemolysin-gene-based species-specific multiplex PCR also confirmed these results. Experimental challenge studies using Artemia as a model showed that eight isolates were highly pathogenic, three were moderately pathogenic and the remaining 17 were non-pathogenic. Ribotyping with BglI clearly distinguished V. campbellii from V. harveyi, but it failed to separate pathogenic and non-pathogenic clusters. Artemia nauplii challenged with a fluorescently labelled highly pathogenic strain (IPEY54) showed patches in the digestive tract. However, no patches were observed for a non-pathogenic strain (IPEY41). Direct bacterial counts also supported colonization potential for the highly pathogenic strain. To our knowledge, this is the first report on the isolation and accurate identification of large numbers of V. campbellii associated with shrimp disease in aquacultural farms. V. campbellii has long been considered to be non-pathogenic and classified with V. harveyi-related bacteria. However, we show that this species may be an emerging aquaculture pathogen. This study will help to formulate suitable strategies to combat this newly identified pathogen.

Quantification of Vibrio cholerae cholix exotoxin by sandwich bead-ELISA.

Introduction. Cholix toxin (ChxA) is an ADP-ribosylating exotoxin produced by Vibrio cholerae. However, to date, there is no quantitative assay available for ChxA, which makes it difficult to detect and estimate the level of ChxA produced by V. cholerae.Hypothesis/Gap Statement. It is important to develop a reliable and specific quantitative assay to measure the production level of ChxA, which will help us to understand the role of ChxA in V. cholerae pathogenesis.Aim. The aim of this study was to develop a bead-based sandwich ELISA (bead-ELISA) for the quantification of ChxA and to evaluate the importance of ChxA in the pathogenesis of V. cholerae infection.Methodology. Anti-rChxA was raised in New Zealand white rabbits, and Fab-horse radish peroxidase conjugate was prepared by the maleimide method to use in the bead-ELISA. This anti-ChxA bead-ELISA was applied to quantify the ChxA produced by various V. cholerae strains. The production of ChxA was examined in different growth media such as alkaline peptone water (APW), Luria-Bertani broth and AKI. Finally, the assay was evaluated using a mouse lethality assay with representative V. cholerae strains categorized as low to high ChxA-producers based on anti-ChxA bead-ELISA.Results. A sensitive bead-ELISA assay, which can quantify from 0.6 to 60 ng ml-1 of ChxA, was developed. ChxA was mostly detected in the extracellular cell-free supernatant and its production level varied from 1.2 ng ml-1 to 1.6 µg ml-1. The highest ChxA production was observed when V. cholerae strains were cultured in LB broth, but not in APW or AKI medium. The ChxA-producer V. cholerae strains showed 20-80 % lethality and only the high ChxA II-producer was statistically more lethal than a non-ChxA-producer, in the mice model assay. ChxA I and II production levels were not well correlated with mice lethality, and this could be due to the heterogeneity of the strains tested.Conclusion. ChxA I to III was produced mostly extracellularly at various levels depending on strains and culture conditions. The bead-ELISA developed in this study is useful for the detection and quantification of ChxA in V. cholerae strains.

Characterization of Human Genes Modulated by Porphyromonas gingivalis Highlights the Ribosome, Hypothalamus, and Cholinergic Neurons.

Porphyromonas gingivalis, a bacterium associated with periodontal disease, is a suspected cause of Alzheimer's disease. This bacterium is reliant on gingipain proteases, which cleave host proteins after arginine and lysine residues. To characterize gingipain susceptibility, we performed enrichment analyses of arginine and lysine proportion proteome-wide. Genes differentially expressed in brain samples with detected P. gingivalis reads were also examined. Genes from these analyses were tested for functional enrichment and specific neuroanatomical expression patterns. Proteins in the SRP-dependent cotranslational protein targeting to membrane pathway were enriched for these residues and previously associated with periodontal and Alzheimer's disease. These ribosomal genes are up-regulated in prefrontal cortex samples with detected P. gingivalis sequences. Other differentially expressed genes have been previously associated with dementia (ITM2B, MAPT, ZNF267, and DHX37). For an anatomical perspective, we characterized the expression of the P. gingivalis associated genes in the mouse and human brain. This analysis highlighted the hypothalamus, cholinergic neurons, and the basal forebrain. Our results suggest markers of neural P. gingivalis infection and link the cholinergic and gingipain hypotheses of Alzheimer's disease.

Host surface ectonucleotidase-CD73 and the opportunistic pathogen, Porphyromonas gingivalis, cross-modulation underlies a new homeostatic mechanism for chronic bacterial survival in human epithelial cells.

Cell surface nucleotide-metabolizing enzyme, ectonucleotidase-CD73, has emerged as a central component of the cellular homeostatic-machinery that counterbalances the danger-molecule (extracellular-ATP)-driven proinflammatory response in immune cells. While the importance of CD73 in microbial host fitness and symbiosis is gradually being unraveled, there remains a significant gap in knowledge of CD73 and its putative role in epithelial cells. Here, we depict a novel host-pathogen adaptation mechanism where CD73 takes a center role in the intracellular persistence of Porphyromonas gingivalis, a major colonizer of oral mucosa, using human primary gingival epithelial cell (GEC) system. Temporal analyses revealed, upon invasion into the GECs, P. gingivalis can significantly elevate the host-surface CD73 activity and expression. The enhanced and active CD73 significantly increases P. gingivalis intracellular growth in the presence of substrate-AMP and simultaneously acts as a negative regulator of reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation upon eATP treatment. The inhibition of CD73 by siRNA or by a specific inhibitor markedly increases ROS production. Moreover, CD73 and P. gingivalis cross-signaling significantly modulates pro-inflammatory interleukin-6 (IL-6) in the GECs. Conversely, exogenous treatment of the infected GECs with IL-6 suppresses the intracellular bacteria via amplified ROS generation. However, the decreased bacterial levels can be restored by overexpressing functionally active CD73. Together, these findings illuminate how the local extracellular-purine-metabolism, in which CD73 serves as a core molecular switch, can alter intracellular microbial colonization resistance. Further, host-adaptive pathogens such as P. gingivalis can target host ectonucleotidases to disarm specific innate defenses for successful intracellular persistence in mucosal epithelia.

In Situ Intraepithelial Localizations of Opportunistic Pathogens, Porphyromonas gingivalis and Filifactor alocis, in Human Gingiva.

Porphyromonas gingivalis and Filifactor alocis are fastidious oral pathogens and etiological agents associated with chronic periodontitis. Although previous studies showed increased levels of the two obligate anaerobic species in periodontitis patients, methodologies for this knowledge were primarily limited to sampling subgingival plaque, saliva, or gingival crevicular fluid. To evaluate the extent to which P. gingivalis and F. alocis may invade the periodontal tissues, an in situ cross-sectional study was comparatively conducted on the gingival biopsy specimens of patients diagnosed with periodontal health or chronic periodontitis. Immunostained tissue sections for each organism were imaged by Super-Resolution Confocal Scanning Microscopy to determine the relative presence and localization of target bacterial species. Fluorescence-in-situ-hybridization (FISH) coupled with species specific 16S rRNA method was utilized to confirm whether detected bacteria were live within the tissue. In periodontitis, P. gingivalis and F. alocis revealed similarly concentrated localization near the basement membrane or external basal lamina of the gingival epithelium. The presence of both bacteria was significantly increased in periodontitis vs. healthy tissue. However, P. gingivalis was still detected to an extent in health tissue, while only minimal levels of F. alocis were spotted in health. Additionally, the micrographic analyses displayed heightened formation of epithelial microvasculature containing significantly co-localized and metabolically active dual species within periodontitis tissue. Thus, this study demonstrates, for the first-time, spatial arrangements of P. gingivalis and F. alocis in both single and co-localized forms within the complex fabric of human gingiva during health and disease. It also exhibits critical visualizations of co-invaded microvascularized epithelial layer of the tissue by metabolically active P. gingivalis and F. alocis from patients with severe periodontitis. These findings collectively uncover novel visual evidence of a potential starting point for systemic spread of opportunistic bacteria during their chronic colonization in gingival epithelium.