Thyroid hormones inhibit TGF-ß signaling and attenuate fibrotic responses.

TGF-ß, the most potent profibrogenic factor, acts by activating SMAD (mothers against decapentaplegic) transcription factors, which bind to SMAD-binding elements in target genes. Here, we show that the thyroid hormone triiodothyronine (T3), through binding to its nuclear receptors (TRs), is able to antagonize transcriptional activation by TGF-ß/SMAD. This antagonism involves reduced phosphorylation of SMADs and a direct interaction of the receptors with SMAD3 and SMAD4 that is independent of T3-mediated transcriptional activity but requires residues in the receptor DNA binding domain. T3 reduces occupancy of SMAD-binding elements in response to TGF-ß, reducing histone acetylation and inhibiting transcription. In agreement with this transcriptional cross-talk, T3 is able to antagonize fibrotic processes in vivo. Liver fibrosis induced by carbon tetrachloride is attenuated by thyroid hormone administration to mice, whereas aged TR knockout mice spontaneously accumulate collagen. Furthermore, skin fibrosis induced by bleomycin administration is also reduced by the thyroid hormones. These findings define an important function of the thyroid hormone receptors and suggest TR ligands could have beneficial effects to block the progression of fibrotic diseases.

Map3k8 Modulates Monocyte State and Atherogenesis in ApoE-/- Mice.

OBJECTIVE: Map3k8 (Cot/Tpl2) activates the MKK1/2-ERK1/2, MAPK pathway downstream from interleukin-1R, tumor necrosis factor-αR, NOD-2R (nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like 2R), adiponectinR, and Toll-like receptors. Map3k8 plays a key role in innate and adaptive immunity and influences inflammatory processes by modulating the functions of different cell types. However, its role in atherogenesis remains unknown. In this study, we analyzed the role of this kinase in this pathology. APPROACH AND RESULTS: We show here that Map3k8 deficiency results in smaller numbers of Ly6ChighCD11clow and Ly6ClowCD11chigh monocytes in ApoE-/- mice fed a high-fat diet (HFD). Map3k8-/-ApoE-/- monocytes displayed high rates of apoptosis and reduced amounts of Nr4a1, a transcription factor known to modulate apoptosis in Ly6ClowCD11chigh monocytes. Map3k8-/-ApoE-/- splenocytes and macrophages showed irregular patterns of cytokine and chemokine expression. Map3k8 deficiency altered cell adhesion and migration in vivo and decreased CCR2 expression, a determinant chemokine receptor for monocyte mobilization, on circulating Ly6ChighCD11clow monocytes. Map3k8-/-ApoE-/- mice fed an HFD showed decreased cellular infiltration in the atherosclerotic plaque, with low lipid content. Lesions had similar size after Map3k8+/+ApoE-/- bone marrow transplant into Map3k8-/-ApoE-/- and Map3k8+/+ApoE-/- mice fed an HFD, whereas smaller plaques were observed after the transplantation of bone marrow lacking both ApoE and Map3k8. CONCLUSIONS: Map3k8 decreases apoptosis of monocytes and enhances CCR2 expression on Ly6ChighCD11clow monocytes of ApoE-/- mice fed an HFD. These findings explain the smaller aortic lesions in ApoE-/- mice with Map3k8-/-ApoE-/- bone marrow cells fed an HFD, supporting further studies of Map3k8 as an antiatherosclerotic target.

The thyroid hormone enhances mouse embryonic fibroblasts reprogramming to pluripotent stem cells: role of the nuclear receptor corepressor 1.

Introduction: Pluripotent stem cells can be generated from somatic cells by the Yamanaka factors Oct4, Sox2, Klf4 and c-Myc. Methods: Mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) were transduced with the Yamanaka factors and generation of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) was assessed by formation of alkaline phosphatase positive colonies, pluripotency gene expression and embryod bodies formation. Results: The thyroid hormone triiodothyronine (T3) enhances MEFs reprogramming. T3-induced iPSCs resemble embryonic stem cells in terms of the expression profile and DNA methylation pattern of pluripotency genes, and of their potential for embryod body formation and differentiation into the three major germ layers. T3 induces reprogramming even though it increases expression of the cyclin kinase inhibitors p21 and p27, which are known to oppose acquisition of pluripotency. The actions of T3 on reprogramming are mainly mediated by the thyroid hormone receptor beta and T3 can enhance iPSC generation in the absence of c-Myc. The hormone cannot replace Oct4 on reprogramming, but in the presence of T3 is possible to obtain iPSCs, although with low efficiency, without exogenous Klf4. Furthermore, depletion of the corepressor NCoR (or Nuclear Receptor Corepressor 1) reduces MEFs reprogramming in the absence of the hormone and strongly decreases iPSC generation by T3 and also by 9cis-retinoic acid, a well-known inducer of reprogramming. NCoR depletion also markedly antagonizes induction of pluripotency gene expression by both ligands. Conclusions: Inclusion of T3 on reprogramming strategies has a potential use in enhancing the generation of functional iPSCs for studies of cell plasticity, disease and regenerative medicine.

The thyroid hormone receptors as modulators of skin proliferation and inflammation.

We have analyzed the role of the thyroid hormone receptors (TRs) in epidermal homeostasis. Reduced keratinocyte proliferation is found in interfollicular epidermis of mice lacking the thyroid hormone binding isoforms TRα1 and TRß (KO mice). Similar results were obtained in hypothyroid animals, showing the important role of the liganded TRs in epidermal proliferation. In addition, KO and hypothyroid animals display decreased hyperplasia in response to 12-O-tetradecanolyphorbol-13-acetate. Both receptor isoforms play overlapping functional roles in the skin because mice lacking individually TRα1 or TRß also present a proliferative defect but not as marked as that found in double KO mice. Defective proliferation in KO mice is associated with reduction of cyclin D1 expression and up-regulation of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors p19 and p27. Paradoxically, ERK and AKT activity and expression of downstream targets, such as AP-1 components, are increased in KO mice. Increased p65/NF-κB and STAT3 phosphorylation and, as a consequence, augmented expression of chemokines and proinflammatory cytokines is also found in these animals. These results show that thyroid hormones and their receptors are important mediators of skin proliferation and demonstrate that TRs act as endogenous inhibitors of skin inflammation, most likely due to interference with AP-1, NF-κB, and STAT3 activation.

Thyroid hormones act as modulators of inflammation through their nuclear receptors.

Reciprocal crosstalk between endocrine and immune systems has been well-documented both in physiological and pathological conditions, although the connection between the immune system and thyroid hormones (THs) remains largely unclear. Inflammation and infection are two important processes modulated by the immune system, which have profound effects on both central and peripheral THs metabolism. Conversely, optimal levels of THs are necessary for the maintenance of immune function and response. Although some effects of THs are mediated by their binding to cell membrane integrin receptors, triggering a non-genomic response, most of the actions of these hormones involve their binding to specific nuclear thyroid receptors (TRs), which generate a genomic response by modulating the activity of a great variety of transcription factors. In this special review on THs role in health and disease, we highlight the relevance of these hormones in the molecular mechanisms linked to inflammation upon their binding to specific nuclear receptors. In particular, we focus on THs effects on different signaling pathways involved in the inflammation associated with various infectious and/or pathological processes, emphasizing those mediated by NF-kB, p38MAPK and JAK/STAT. The findings showed in this review suggest new opportunities to improve current therapeutic strategies for the treatment of inflammation associated with several infections and/or diseases, such as cancer, sepsis or Covid-19 infection.

Dynamic regulation of myofibroblast phenotype in cellular senescence.

Cellular senescence is an antiproliferative response with a critical role in the control of cellular balance in diverse physiological and pathological settings. Here, we set to study the impact of senescence on the regulation of cell plasticity, focusing on the regulation of the myofibroblastic phenotype in primary fibroblasts. Myofibroblasts are contractile, highly fibrogenic cells with key roles in wound healing and fibrosis. Using cellular models of fibroblast senescence, we find a consistent loss of myofibroblastic markers and functional features upon senescence implementation. This phenotype can be transmitted in a paracrine manner, most likely through soluble secreted factors. A dynamic transcriptomic analysis during paracrine senescence confirmed the non-cell-autonomous transmission of this phenotype. Moreover, gene expression data combined with pharmacological and genetic manipulations of the major SASP signaling pathways suggest that the changes in myofibroblast phenotype are mainly mediated by the Notch/TGF-ß axis, involving a dynamic switch in the TGF-ß pathway. Our results reveal a novel link between senescence and myofibroblastic differentiation with potential implications in the physiological and pathological functions of myofibroblasts.

Hypothyroidism confers tolerance to cerebral malaria.

The modulation of the host's metabolism to protect tissue from damage induces tolerance to infections increasing survival. Here, we examined the role of the thyroid hormones, key metabolic regulators, in the outcome of malaria. Hypothyroidism confers protection to experimental cerebral malaria by a disease tolerance mechanism. Hypothyroid mice display increased survival after infection with Plasmodium berghei ANKA, diminishing intracranial pressure and brain damage, without altering pathogen burden, blood-brain barrier disruption, or immune cell infiltration. This protection is reversed by treatment with a Sirtuin 1 inhibitor, while treatment of euthyroid mice with a Sirtuin 1 activator induces tolerance and reduces intracranial pressure and lethality. This indicates that thyroid hormones and Sirtuin 1 are previously unknown targets for cerebral malaria treatment, a major killer of children in endemic malaria areas.

Hematopoiesis in aged female mice devoid of thyroid hormone receptors.

Hypothyroidism is often associated with anemia and immunological disorders. Similar defects are found in patients and in mice with a mutated dominant-negative thyroid hormone receptor α (TRα) and in knockout mice devoid of this receptor, suggesting that this isoform is responsible for the effects of the thyroid hormones in hematopoiesis. However, the hematological phenotype of mice lacking also TRß has not yet been examined. We show here that TRα1/TRß-knockout female mice, lacking all known thyroid hormone receptors with capacity to bind thyroid hormones, do not have overt anemia and in contrast with hypothyroid mice do not present reduced Gata1 or Hif1 gene expression. Similar to that found in hypothyroidism or TRα deficiency during the juvenile period, the B-cell population is reduced in the spleen and bone marrow of ageing TRα1/TRß-knockout mice, suggesting that TRß does not play a major role in B-cell development. However, splenic hypotrophy is more marked in hypothyroid mice than in TRα1/TRß-knockout mice and the splenic population of T-lymphocytes is not significantly impaired in these mice in contrast with the reduction found in hypothyroidism. Our results show that the overall hematopoietic phenotype of the TRα1/TRß-knockout mice is milder than that found in the absence of hormone. Although other mechanism/s cannot be ruled out, our results suggest that the unoccupied TRs could have a negative effect on hematopoiesis, likely secondary to repression of hematopoietic gene expression.

The voltage dependence of hEag currents is not determined solely by membrane-spanning domains.

The ether-à-go-go potassium channels hEag1 and hEag2 are highly homologous. Even though both possess identical voltage-sensing domain S4, the channels act differently in response to voltage. Therefore we asked whether transmembrane domains other than the voltage sensor could contribute to the voltage-dependent behaviour of these potassium channels. For this chimaeras were created, in which each single transmembrane domain of hEag1 was replaced by the corresponding segment of hEag2. The voltage-dependent properties of the chimaeras were analysed after expression in Xenopus laevis oocytes using the two-electrode voltage-clamp method. By this we found, that only the mutations in transmembrane domains S5 and S6 are able to change the voltage sensitivity of hEag1 by shifting the half-activation potential (V(50)) to values intermediate between the two wild types. Moreover, the presence of Mg2+ has strong effects on the voltage sensitivity of hEag2 shifting V(50) by more than 50 mV to more positive values. Interestingly, despite the identical binding site Mg2+ showed only little effects on hEag1 or the chimaeras. Altogether, our data suggest that not only transmembrane spanning regions, but also non-membrane spanning regions are responsible for differences in the behaviour of the hEag1 and hEag2 potassium channels.

Monoclonal antibody blockade of the human Eag1 potassium channel function exerts antitumor activity.

The potassium channel ether à go-go has been directly linked to cellular proliferation and transformation, although its physiologic role(s) are as of yet unknown. The specific blockade of human Eag1 (hEag1) may not only allow the dissection of the role of the channel in distinct physiologic processes, but because of the implication of hEag1 in tumor biology, it may also offer an opportunity for the treatment of cancer. However, members of the potassium channel superfamily are structurally very similar to one another, and it has been notoriously difficult to obtain specific blockers for any given channel. Here, we describe and validate the first rational design of a monoclonal antibody that selectively inhibits a potassium current in intact cells. Specifically blocking hEag1 function using this antibody inhibits tumor cell growth both in vitro and in vivo. Our data provide a proof of concept that enables the generation of functional antagonistic monoclonal antibodies against ion channels with therapeutic potential. The particular antibody described here, as well as the technique developed to make additional functional antibodies to Eag1, makes it possible to evaluate the potential of the channel as a target for cancer therapy.

Thyroid Hormone Receptors Regulate the Expression of microRNAs with Key Roles in Skin Homeostasis.

BACKGROUND: MicroRNAs (miRNAs) play a unique role in posttranscriptional regulation of gene expression and control different aspects of skin development, homeostasis, and disease. Although it is generally accepted that thyroid hormone signaling is important in skin pathophysiology, the role of their nuclear receptors (TRs) in cutaneous miRNA expression has yet to be explored. METHODS: RNAseq was used to compare the skin miRnome of wild-type mice and genetically modified mice lacking both TRα1 and TRß, the main thyroid hormone binding isoforms. Changes in miRNAs with a crucial role in skin physiopathology were confirmed by stem-loop quantitative polymerase chain reaction in both total skin and isolated keratinocytes, and the levels of their target mRNAs were evaluated by real-time polymerase chain reaction. RESULTS: The skin of TRα1/TRß knockout mice displays altered levels of >50 miRNAs. Among the downregulated species are several miRNAs, including miR-21, miR-31, miR-34, and miR-203, with crucial roles in skin homeostasis. TRα1 appears to be the main isoform responsible for their regulation. Increased levels of gene transcripts previously shown to be bona fide targets of these miRNAs are also found in the skin and keratinocytes of TR-deficient mice. This suggests that multiple miRNAs that are downregulated in the absence of TRs cooperate to regulate gene expression in the skin. CONCLUSIONS: The miRNAs reduced in TRα1/TRß knockout mice are known to play crucial roles in epidermal proliferation, hair cycling, wound healing, stem-cell function, and tumor development, all processes altered in the absence of TRs. These results suggest that their regulation could contribute to the skin defects found in these mice and to the skin disorders associated with altered thyroid status in humans.

Map3k8 controls granulocyte colony-stimulating factor production and neutrophil precursor proliferation in lipopolysaccharide-induced emergency granulopoiesis.

Map3k8 has been proposed as a useful target for the treatment of inflammatory diseases. We show here that during lipopolysaccharide-induced emergency granulopoiesis, Map3k8 deficiency strongly impairs the increase in circulating mature (Ly6GhighCD11b+) and immature (Ly6GlowCD11b+) neutrophils. After chimaeric bone marrow (BM) transplantation into recipient Map3k8-/- mice, lipopolysaccharide treatment did not increase circulating Ly6GhighCD11b+ cells and strongly decreased circulating Ly6GlowCD11b+ cells. Lipopolysaccharide-treated Map3k8-/- mice showed decreased production of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF), a key factor in neutrophil expansion, and a Map3k8 inhibitor blocked lipopolysaccharide-mediated G-CSF expression in endothelial cell lines. Ly6GlowCD11b+ BM cells from lipopolysaccharide-treated Map3k8-/- mice displayed impaired expression of CCAAT-enhancer-binding protein ß, which depends on G-CSF for expression and is crucial for cell cycle acceleration in this life-threatening condition. Accordingly, lipopolysaccharide-treated Map3k8-/- mice showed decreased Ly6GlowCD11b+ BM cell proliferation, as evidenced by a decrease in the percentage of the most immature precursors, which have the highest proliferation capacity among this cell population. Thus, Map3k8 expression by non-haematopoietic tissue is required for lipopolysaccharide-induced emergency granulopoiesis. The novel observation that inhibition of Map3k8 activity decreases neutrophilia during life-threatening systemic infection suggests a possible risk in the proposed use of Map3k8 blockade as an anti-inflammatory therapy.

Different relevance of inactivation and F468 residue in the mechanisms of hEag1 channel blockage by astemizole, imipramine and dofetilide.

The relevance of a point mutation at the C-terminal end of the S6 helix (F468) and the introduction of C-type inactivation in the blockage of hEag1 channels by astemizole, imipramine and dofetilide was tested. C-type inactivation decreased block by astemizole and dofetilide but not imipramine, suggesting different binding sites in the channel. F468C mutation increased IC(50) for astemizole and imipramine but in contrast to HERG channels, only slightly for dofetilide. Together with measurements on recovery of blocking, our observations indicate that the mechanism of hEag1 blockage by each of these drugs is different, and suggest relevant structural differences between hEag1 and HERG channels.

The Thyroid Hormone Receptors Inhibit Hepatic Interleukin-6 Signaling During Endotoxemia.

Decreased thyroidal hormone production is found during lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced endotoxic shock in animals as well as in critically ill patients. Here we studied the role of the thyroid hormone receptors (TRs) in activation of STAT3, NF-κB and ERK, which play a key role in the response to inflammatory cytokines during sepsis. TR knockout mice showed down-regulation of hepatic inflammatory mediators, including interleukin 6 (IL-6) in response to LPS. Paradoxically, STAT3 and ERK activity were higher, suggesting that TRs could act as endogenous repressors of these pathways. Furthermore, hyperthyroidism increased cytokine production and mortality in response to LPS, despite decreasing hepatic STAT3 and ERK activity. This suggested that TRs could directly repress the response of the cells to inflammatory mediators. Indeed, we found that the thyroid hormone T3 suppresses IL-6 signalling in macrophages and hepatocarcinoma cells, inhibiting STAT3 activation. Consequently, the hormone strongly antagonizes IL-6-stimulated gene transcription, reducing STAT3 recruitment and histone acetylation at IL-6 target promoters. In conclusion, TRs are potent regulators of inflammatory responses and immune homeostasis during sepsis. Reduced responses to IL-6 should serve as a negative feedback mechanism for preventing deleterious effects of excessive hormone signaling during infections.

Evidence for simultaneous 1Na+:1Mg2+ and ping pong 2Na+:1Mg2+ exchangers in rat thymocyte.

Rat thymocytes showed two Na+/Mg2+ exchangers with high- and low- affinities for external Na+ (Na+o) at physiological internal Mg2+content. The total internal Mg2+ content (Mg2+it) was enhanced by loading with MgCl2 and the ionophore A-23187. Under these conditions, Na+/Mg2+ exchangers were dramatically stimulated by the Mg2+it increase. Na+-induced Mg2+ effluxes were independent of Cl-o or H+. The Na+/Mg2+ exchangers, which we named HANao (high affinity for Na+o) and LANao (low affinity for Na+o), were dissected in Mg2+-loaded thymocytes according to their kinetics and stoichiometries. HANao, which showed an apparent dissociation constant for Na+o (KNa H) = 9.2 +/- 1.6 mmol l(-1) Na+o and a maximal Na+ influx rate (VNa(Na H)max) = 30.5 +/- 6.1 mmol (l cells)(-1) h(-1), was a 1Na+:1Mg2+ simultaneous antiporter insensitive to external magnesium (Mg2+o) whereas that LANao, with KNa L = 65.1 +/- 8.6 mmol l(-1) Na+ and a VNa(Na L)max = 79.5 +/- 14.3 mmol (l cells)(-1) Na+ h(-1), was a 2Na+:1Mg2+ "ping-pong" antiporter which was strongly inhibited by Mg2+o. At physiological concentration of Mg2+o (1 mM), the Na+/Mg2+ exchange through the LANao was inhibited by approximately 50%. Amiloride (10(-4) M) inhibited at similar extent both Na+ and Mg2+ fluxes at high and at low Na+o.

Thyroid hormone signaling controls hair follicle stem cell function.

Observations in thyroid patients and experimental animals show that the skin is an important target for the thyroid hormones. We previously showed that deletion in mice of the thyroid hormone nuclear receptors TRα1 and TRß (the main thyroid hormone-binding isoforms) results in impaired epidermal proliferation, hair growth, and wound healing. Stem cells located at the bulges of the hair follicles are responsible for hair cycling and contribute to the regeneration of the new epidermis after wounding. Therefore a reduction in the number or function of the bulge stem cells could be responsible for this phenotype. Bulge cells show increased levels of epigenetic repressive marks, can retain bromodeoxyuridine labeling for a long time, and have colony-forming efficiency (CFE) in vitro. Here we demonstrate that mice lacking TRs do not have a decrease of the bulge stem cell population. Instead, they show an increase of label-retaining cells (LRCs) in the bulges and enhanced CFE in vitro. Reduced activation of stem cells leading to their accumulation in the bulges is indicated by a strongly reduced response to mobilization by 12-O-tetradecanolyphorbol-13-acetate. Altered function of the bulge stem cells is associated with aberrant activation of Smad signaling, leading to reduced nuclear accumulation of ß-catenin, which is crucial for stem cell proliferation and mobilization. LRCs of TR-deficient mice also show increased levels of epigenetic repressive marks. We conclude that thyroid hormone signaling is an important determinant of the mobilization of stem cells out of their niche in the hair bulge. These findings correlate with skin defects observed in mice and alterations found in human thyroid disorders.

Fluorometric evidence for different stoichiometries for the Na+/Mg2+ exchange in Mg-loaded rat thymocytes.

The regulation of the cytosolic free magnesium concentration ([Mg2+]i) is a fundamental cellular process that requires magnesium extruding mechanisms. Here, we present evidence indicating that rat thymocytes are endowed with different Na/Mg exchange systems. Fluxes of magnesium were measured using the fluorescent magnesium indicator magfura-2. Cells were loaded with magnesium using the calcium ionophore A-23187 to 0.6-8.0 mM [Mg2+]i (resting [Mg2+]i = 0.38 +/- 0.06 mM, n = 5). The presence of extracellular sodium was required for magnesium exit. The initial rate of [Mg2+]i was stimulated by extracellular sodium with Michaelis-Menten kinetics. The Vmax of the sodium-dependent magnesium exit was markedly increased by [Mg2+]i. Holding the membrane potential at either -84 mV or at -10 mV had different effects on the sodium-stimulated magnesium efflux, depending on the extracellular sodium concentration ([Na+]o). At 10-30 mM [Na+]o, the magnesium efflux was faster at -10 mV than at -84 mV. Conversely, at 50-200 mM [Na+]o, the efflux of magnesium was faster at -84 mV that at -10 mV. At 75 mM [Na+]o, the activities where nearly the same at both membrane potential values. These observations suggest that the stochiometry of the Na+/Mg2+ exchange changes with [Na+]o.

Impaired hair growth and wound healing in mice lacking thyroid hormone receptors.

Both clinical and experimental observations show that the skin is affected by the thyroidal status. In hypothyroid patients the epidermis is thin and alopecia is common, indicating that thyroidal status might influence not only skin proliferation but also hair growth. We demonstrate here that the thyroid hormone receptors (TRs) mediate these effects of the thyroid hormones on the skin. Mice lacking TRα1 and TRß (the main thyroid hormone binding isoforms) display impaired hair cycling associated to a decrease in follicular hair cell proliferation. This was also observed in hypothyroid mice, indicating the important role of the hormone-bound receptors in hair growth. In contrast, the individual deletion of either TRα1 or TRß did not impair hair cycling, revealing an overlapping or compensatory role of the receptors in follicular cell proliferation. In support of the role of the receptors in hair growth, TRα1/TRß-deficient mice developed alopecia after serial depilation. These mice also presented a wound-healing defect, with retarded re-epithelialization and wound gaping, associated to impaired keratinocyte proliferation. These results reinforce the idea that the thyroid hormone nuclear receptors play an important role on skin homeostasis and suggest that they could be targets for the treatment of cutaneous pathologies.

Thyroid hormone regulation of APP (ß-amyloid precursor protein) gene expression in brain and brain cultured cells.

We have previously shown that the thyroid hormone triiodothyronine negatively regulates the transcriptional activity of the ß-amyloid precursor protein gene (APP) in cultured murine neuroblastoma cells, by a mechanism that involves binding of the nuclear thyroid hormone receptor (TR) to DNA sequences located within the first exon of the gene. In this report we present results showing that the thyroid hormones also repress the expression of APP in human neuroblastoma cells and in primary cultures of rat neurons. In addition, and in agreement with the results obtained in cultured cells, APP messenger RNA and protein levels are significantly higher in the brain of hypothyroid rats and mice, and also in Alzheimer-related brain regions dissected from KO mice lacking TRs. These results show that binding of the thyroid hormones to their nuclear receptors mediate their repressive effect on APP gene expression in vivo.

The thyroid hormone receptors modulate the skin response to retinoids.

BACKGROUND: Retinoids play an important role in skin homeostasis and when administered topically cause skin hyperplasia, abnormal epidermal differentiation and inflammation. Thyroidal status in humans also influences skin morphology and function and we have recently shown that the thyroid hormone receptors (TRs) are required for a normal proliferative response to 12-O-tetradecanolyphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) in mice. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We have compared the epidermal response of mice lacking the thyroid hormone receptor binding isoforms TRα1 and TRß to retinoids and TPA. Reduced hyperplasia and a decreased number of proliferating cells in the basal layer in response to 9-cis-RA and TPA were found in the epidermis of TR-deficient mice. Nuclear levels of proteins important for cell proliferation were altered, and expression of keratins 5 and 6 was also reduced, concomitantly with the decreased number of epidermal cell layers. In control mice the retinoid (but not TPA) induced parakeratosis and diminished expression of keratin 10 and loricrin, markers of early and terminal epidermal differentiation, respectively. This reduction was more accentuated in the TR deficient animals, whereas they did not present parakeratosis. Therefore, TRs modulate both the proliferative response to retinoids and their inhibitory effects on skin differentiation. Reduced proliferation, which was reversed upon thyroxine treatment, was also found in hypothyroid mice, demonstrating that thyroid hormone binding to TRs is required for the normal response to retinoids. In addition, the mRNA levels of the pro-inflammatory cytokines TNFα and IL-6 and the chemotactic proteins S1008A and S1008B were significantly elevated in the skin of TR knock-out mice after TPA or 9-cis-RA treatment and immune cell infiltration was also enhanced. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Since retinoids are commonly used for the treatment of skin disorders, these results demonstrating that TRs regulate skin proliferation, differentiation and inflammation in response to these compounds could have not only physiological but also therapeutic implications.