Factors at the scene of injury associated with air versus ground transport to definitive care in a state with a large rural population.

BACKGROUND: Once emergency medical services (EMS) personnel decide to transport a trauma patient directly to definitive care, the next key decision at the scene of injury is whether to transport by air or ground. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to identify factors at the scene of injury that are associated with this decision. METHODS: All trauma patients transported directly to a level I or level II trauma center by either air or ground EMS over a four-year period were selected from the Oklahoma State Trauma Registry. Initial scene vital signs, Glasgow Coma Scale score (GCS), injury mechanism, anatomic triage criteria, age, time of day, ground EMS service level, and scene location were collected. Scene location ZIP code centroids were geocoded and used to calculate distance to the trauma center. Following bivariate analyses, multivariable logistic regression models were developed within three strata defined by distance (>35, 16-35, and <16 miles). RESULTS: More than 80% of the patients beyond 35 miles were transported by air, compared with 32% from 16-35 miles and only 4% from <16 miles. Regardless of distance, patients transported by helicopter tended to be younger, more often had abnormal vital signs, and more frequently came from areas served by a basic or intermediate ground EMS agency, as compared with patients transported by ground. Within each distance stratum, patients injured in severe motor vehicle crashes, motorcycle crashes, or pedestrian incidents were more likely to be transported by air. A GCS <14 was the only patient-related factor consistently associated with increased odds of air transport. CONCLUSION: Distance is the main factor in deciding whether to use air or ground EMS to transport a trauma patient from the scene of injury to a trauma center. With the exception of GCS <14, injury etiology was more strongly and consistently associated with the decision to transport by air than were patient related-factors. Identifying factors influencing the field transport decision will help develop transport guidelines that make efficient use of EMS resources.

Directness of transport of major trauma patients to a level I trauma center: a propensity-adjusted survival analysis of the impact on short-term mortality.

BACKGROUND: Whether severely injured patients should be transported directly to tertiary trauma centers, bypassing closer nontertiary facilities, or be transported first to nearby, less-specialized facilities for immediate care and stabilization has been studied with mixed findings. Differences in study locale, case mix, and variation in the structure and level of maturation of the trauma system may explain some of the discrepancy in findings. In addition, risk adjustment strategies used in these studies did not take into account prehospital baseline characteristics as well as time since injury. METHODS: This was a retrospective cohort study of 1,998 patients treated at a Level I trauma center between January 1, 2006, and December 31, 2007. Propensity-adjusted survival analyses were used to compare short-term mortality outcomes in transferred versus directly transported major trauma patients. RESULTS: A total of 1,398 patients were transported directly to the Level I trauma center and 600 patients were transferred from lower level facilities. After adjusting for the propensity to be transported directly, age, injury severity score, severe head injury, emergency medical service or emergency department intubation, comorbid conditions, and time to definitive Level I trauma care, the 2-week mortality risk in transferred patients was almost three-fold that of patients transported directly to a Level I trauma center (hazard ratio, 2.7; 95% confidence interval, 1.31-5.6). CONCLUSION: Transferred patients in a predominantly rural region are at an increased risk of short-term mortality. This suggests that severely injured patients should be transported directly to tertiary trauma centers. For patients requiring immediate stabilization at nontertiary facilities, this should be performed promptly without unnecessary delays.

A propensity score analysis of prehospital factors and directness of transport of major trauma patients to a level I trauma center.

BACKGROUND: Indications for direct transport may be strongly related to risk of future health outcomes, and these indications may not be adequately controlled by considering only in-hospital variables. This study was designed to identify prehospital factors associated with directness of transport. METHODS: The study included 2,062 patients treated at a Level I trauma center between January 1, 2006, and December 31, 2007. The outcome of interest was directness of transport to a Level I trauma center. A propensity score analysis was used to identify demographic, clinical, distance, and other injury scene-related variables associated with the probability of direct transport. RESULTS: A total of 1,459 patients were directly transported to the Level I trauma center and 603 were transferred from lower level facilities. Patients were more likely to be transported directly if they had lower Glasgow Comma Scale scores, had penetrating injuries, were involved in traffic-related injuries, were closer to a Level IV or I trauma center, and if an advanced life support emergency medical service agency transported them from the scene. Patients were more likely to initially stop if they required advanced airway management, met at least one anatomic criterion, were further away from a Level I trauma center, or closer to an intermediate facility. CONCLUSIONS: Confounding due to unadjusted prehospital factors may be present in studies evaluating the impact of directness of transport on short-term mortality outcomes. Propensity score analysis of treatment indications provides an additional and efficient method to reduce this bias.

Incidence and risk factors for stroke in American Indians: the Strong Heart Study.

BACKGROUND: There are few published data on the incidence of fatal and nonfatal stroke in American Indians. The aims of this observational study were to determine the incidence of stroke and to elucidate stroke risk factors among American Indians. METHODS AND RESULTS: This report is based on 4549 participants aged 45 to 74 years at enrollment in the Strong Heart Study, the largest longitudinal, population-based study of cardiovascular disease and its risk factors in a diverse group of American Indians. At baseline examination in 1989 to 1992, 42 participants (age- and sex-adjusted prevalence proportion 1132/100 000, adjusted to the age and sex distribution of the US adult population in 1990) had prevalent stroke. Through December 2004, 306 (6.8%) of 4507 participants without prior stroke suffered a first stroke at a mean age of 66.5 years. The age- and sex-adjusted incidence was 679/100 000 person-years. Nonhemorrhagic cerebral infarction occurred in 86% of participants with incident strokes; 14% had hemorrhagic stroke. The overall age-adjusted 30-day case-fatality rate from first stroke was 18%, with a 1-year case-fatality rate of 32%. Age, diastolic blood pressure, fasting glucose, hemoglobin A(1c,) smoking, albuminuria, hypertension, prehypertension, and diabetes mellitus were risk factors for incident stroke. CONCLUSIONS: Compared with US white and black populations, American Indians have a higher incidence of stroke. The case-fatality rate for first stroke is also higher in American Indians than in the US white or black population in the same age range. Our findings suggest that blood pressure and glucose control and smoking avoidance may be important avenues for stroke prevention in this population.

Copper deficiency after gastric surgery: a reason for caution.

BACKGROUND: : Acquired copper deficiency in adults leads to hematological and neurological manifestations that mimic vitamin B12 deficiency. A significant number of patients with copper deficiency syndrome have a history of gastric surgery, often remote. We sought to determine whether copper deficiency is present in a population of individuals with longstanding partial gastric resection. METHODS: : Serum copper, ceruloplasmin, and zinc levels were determined in 20 patients with a history of partial gastric resection and 50 controls, randomly selected from the Oklahoma City Veterans Affairs Medical Center electronic database. RESULTS: : Hypocupremia and symptoms of copper deficiency were detected in patients with partial gastric resection in contrast to controls (3/20 versus 0/50, P = 0.02). Serum copper and ceruloplasmin levels were significantly lower in individuals with partial gastric resection than in controls (P = 0.04 and P = 0.001, respectively). The mean interval between gastric surgery and testing was 20.7 years. CONCLUSIONS: : Our results indicate that a significant number of individuals with longstanding history of partial gastric resection have undiagnosed hypocupremia. Screening for copper deficiency after gastric surgery may prevent the development of hematological and neurological complications in these patients.

The impact of imperfect screening tools on measuring the prevalence of epilepsy and headaches in Burkina Faso.

BACKGROUND: Epilepsy and progressively worsening severe chronic headaches (WSCH) are the two most common clinical manifestations of neurocysticercosis, a form of cysticercosis. Most community-based studies in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) use a two-step approach (questionnaire and confirmation) to estimate the prevalence of these neurological disorders and neurocysticercosis. Few validate the questionnaire in the field or account for the imperfect nature of the screening questionnaire and the fact that only those who screen positive have the opportunity to be confirmed. This study aims to obtain community-based validity estimates of a screening questionnaire, and to assess the impact of verification bias and misclassification error on prevalence estimates of epilepsy and WSCH. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Baseline screening questionnaire followed by neurological examination data from a cluster randomized controlled trial collected between February 2011 and January 2012 were used. Bayesian latent-class models were applied to obtain verification bias adjusted validity estimates for the screening questionnaire. These models were also used to compare the adjusted prevalence estimates of epilepsy and WSCH to those directly obtained from the data (i.e. unadjusted prevalence estimates). Different priors were used and their corresponding posterior inference was compared for both WSCH and epilepsy. Screening data were available for 4768 individuals. For epilepsy, posterior estimates for the sensitivity varied with the priors used but remained robust for the specificity, with the highest estimates at 66.1% (95%BCI: 56.4%;75.3%) for sensitivity and 88.9% (88.0%;89.8%) for specificity. For WSCH, the sensitivity and specificity estimates remained robust, with the highest at 59.6% (49.7%;69.1%) and 88.6% (87.6%;89.6%), respectively. The unadjusted prevalence estimates were consistently lower than the adjusted prevalence estimates for both epilepsy and WSCH. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: This study demonstrates that in some settings, the prevalence of epilepsy and WSCH can be considerably underestimated when using the two-step approach. We provide an analytic solution to obtain more valid prevalence estimates of these neurological disorders, although more community-based validity studies are needed to reduce the uncertainty of the estimates. Valid estimates of these two neurological disorders are essential to obtain accurate burden values for neglected tropical diseases such as neurocysticercosis that manifest as epilepsy or WSCH. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03095339.

Effectiveness of a community-based educational programme in reducing the cumulative incidence and prevalence of human Taenia solium cysticercosis in Burkina Faso in 2011-14 (EFECAB): a cluster-randomised controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: The effectiveness of drug-free interventions in controlling human cysticercosis is not well known. We aimed to estimate the effectiveness of a community-based educational intervention in reducing the frequency of human cysticercosis in Burkina Faso. METHODS: We did a cluster-randomised controlled trial between 2011 and 2014. 60 eligible villages from three provinces (Boulkiemdé, Sanguié, and Nayala) were randomly allocated to the intervention or control group. Villages raising pigs, that were not a regional capital or located on a main road, that were more than 20 km from Ouagadougou or 5 km from one another, were eligible. In each village, 60 participants were asked for blood samples at baseline, 18 months later (before randomisation), and 18 months after randomisation. Villages were block randomised (1:1) by pig-raising department immediately after the pre-randomisation visit. The intervention aimed to improve knowledge of Taenia solium transmission and control through screening and structured discussion of a 52-min movie, and to increase community self-efficacy through a Self-esteem, Associative strengths, Resourcefulness, Action planning, Responsibility (SARAR) approach via the Participatory Hygiene and Sanitation Transformation (PHAST) model. The primary outcome was active cysticercosis, defined as the presence of circulating antigens detected by use of B158/B60 ELISA. Effectiveness measured at the village level was estimated by use of three Bayesian hierarchical models. This study is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT0309339. FINDINGS: Two villages in the same randomisation block were excluded, resulting in a final sample size of 58 villages. Overall, the intervention tended towards a decrease in the cumulative incidence of active cysticercosis from baseline to after randomisation (adjusted cumulative incidence ratio 0·65, 95% Bayesian credible interval [95% CrI] 0·39-1·05) and a decrease in active cysticercosis prevalence from baseline to after randomisation (adjusted prevalence proportion ratio 0·84; 95% CrI 0·59-1·18). The intervention was shown to be effective in Nayala and Sanguié but not in Boulkiemdé. INTERPRETATION: Community-engaged participatory interventions can be effective at reducing the incidence and prevalence of cysticercosis in some low-resource settings. FUNDING: US National Institutes of Health (National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, Fogarty International Center, and National Institute of General Medical Sciences).

Infectious disease outbreaks in competitive sports: a review of the literature.

Recent outbreaks of infectious diseases in athletes in competitive sports have stimulated considerable interest. The environments in which these athletes compete, practice, receive therapy for injuries, and travel, both domestically and internationally, provide varied opportunities for the transmission of infectious organisms. The purpose of this medical literature review is to identify the agents most commonly reported in the medical literature as responsible for infectious disease outbreaks in specific sports and their modes of transmission and to guide targeted prevention efforts. A literature review of English-language articles in medical publications that reported outbreaks of infectious diseases in competitive athletes was conducted in PubMed MEDLINE from 1966 through May 2005. Outbreaks that were solely food borne were excluded. Fifty-nine reports of infectious disease outbreaks in competitive sports were identified in the published medical literature. Herpes simplex virus infections appear to be common among wrestlers and rugby players, with no single strain responsible for the outbreaks. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus was responsible for several recent outbreaks of soft tissue and skin infections among collegiate and professional athletes. The most common mode of transmission in outbreaks was direct, person-to-person (primarily skin-to-skin) contact. Blood-borne exposure was implicated in 2 confirmed outbreaks of hepatitis. Airborne and vector transmissions were rarely reported. This review provides an overview of infectious disease outbreaks thought to be either serious enough or unusual enough to report. Appropriate surveillance of the frequency of infections will allow sports medicine staff to identify outbreaks quickly and take necessary measures to contain further transmission and prevent future outbreaks.

Methods for assessing the burden of parasitic zoonoses: echinococcosis and cysticercosis.

Cysticercosis and echinococcosis cause illness and productivity losses in human and agricultural animal populations. Recent studies suggest that these diseases have large societal impacts on endemic areas. Estimates of burden provide essential, evidence-based data for conducting cost-benefit and cost-utility analyses that will secure political will, and financial and technical resources. To evaluate the burden, the monetary and non-monetary impacts of these zoonoses on human health, agriculture and society must be considered comprehensively. In this article, we review the framework used to assess the burden of cysticercosis and echinococcosis, and the data needed to estimate the extent of the problem for societies.

Hysterectomy prevalence and cardiovascular disease risk factors in American Indian women.

OBJECTIVES: We investigated hysterectomy prevalence and associated demographic and reproductive factors among American Indian women. The association between hysterectomy and cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors was also examined. METHODS: Data were from 2689 American Indian women who participated in the first examination of the Strong Heart Study from 1989 to 1992. Odds ratios were estimated for factors related to hysterectomy adjusting for other covariates. The association between hysterectomy and CVD risk factors was examined among 1726 eligible women using analysis of covariance. RESULTS: Hysterectomy prevalence ranged from 24% to 34% across differing age groups and the percent with oophorectomy among those with a hysterectomy ranged from 43% to 63%. Geographic area, more prior pregnancy losses, more education, and less speaking of the native language were associated with increased hysterectomy prevalence. After adjustment for age, the women who had a hysterectomy with intact ovaries had higher total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels than those with a natural menopause. CONCLUSIONS: American Indian women have comparable hysterectomy prevalence as non-Hispanic white women. Education and native language speaking related to hysterectomy in this population. Hysterectomy alone may relate to unfavorable changes of lipid profile.

Incidence of diabetes in American Indians of three geographic areas: the Strong Heart Study.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate incidence rates of diabetes and associated risk factors among participants of the Strong Heart Study. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Of the 4,549 Strong Heart Study participants examined at baseline, 3,638 returned for a similar examination after an average of 4 years. The 1985 World Health Organization criteria for diabetes were used to identify new diabetes cases. Rates of diabetes among participants who did not have diabetes at baseline examination were determined. The relationships between the incidence rates of diabetes and a number of risk factors measured at baseline examination were studied. RESULTS: Significant variables associated with the development of diabetes included triglycerides, obesity, fasting plasma glucose, insulin, and degree of American Indian blood among participants with NGT at baseline. For those with IGT at baseline, significant predictors included fasting plasma glucose, 2-h glucose, BMI, degree of American Indian blood, and albuminuria. CONCLUSIONS: The high incidence rates found in this study were alarming. To slow down the rapid increase of this disease in the American Indian population, preventive programs must be designed and implemented. Patients with IGT should be treated with diabetes medication or put on a rigid weight-reduction program to reduce the risk of progression to diabetes.

The effect of estrogen use on levels of glucose and insulin and the risk of type 2 diabetes in american Indian postmenopausal women : the strong heart study.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the associations between estrogen use and levels of insulin and glucose as well as the effect of estrogen use on the risk of type 2 diabetes. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: This report is based on 857 women who were both nondiabetic and postmenopausal at the baseline examination (1989-1992) and who completed a second examination (1993-1995) an average of 4 years later. The participants were divided into three groups: never, past, and current users based on their baseline estrogen use status. ANCOVA was used to compare the insulin and glucose levels among estrogen use groups. Logistic regression was used to evaluate the association between estrogen use and the incidence of type 2 diabetes. RESULTS: Postmenopausal estrogen use was associated with lower fasting glucose (0.2 mmol/l lower) but higher 2-h glucose levels (0.4 mmol/l higher) compared with never users. It was not significantly associated with the risk of type 2 diabetes compared with past and never users, based on American Diabetes Association or World Health Organization definitions of diabetes or on only a 2-h glucose level > or = 11.1 mmol/l. However, the risk of type 2 diabetes increased with increasing duration of estrogen use among current users, with an odds ratio of 1.10 per year of use (95% CI: 1.01-1.19). CONCLUSIONS: The data suggest that estrogen use in American Indian postmenopausal women may relate to deterioration of glucose tolerance. Longer duration of estrogen use among current users may relate to an increased risk of type 2 diabetes.

Prevalence of and Factors Associated with Human Cysticercosis in 60 Villages in Three Provinces of Burkina Faso.

BACKGROUND: Taenia solium, a zoonotic infection transmitted between humans and pigs, is considered an emerging infection in Sub-Saharan Africa, yet individual and community-level factors associated with the human infection with the larval stages (cysticercosis) are not well understood. This study aims to estimate the magnitude of association of individual-level and village-level factors with current human cysticercosis in 60 villages located in three Provinces of Burkina Faso. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Baseline cross-sectional data collected between February 2011 and January 2012 from a large community randomized-control trial were used. A total of 3609 individuals provided serum samples to assess current infection with cysticercosis. The association between individual and village-level factors and the prevalence of current infection with cysticercosis was estimated using Bayesian hierarchical logistic models. Diffuse priors were used for all regression coefficients. The prevalence of current cysticercosis varied across provinces and villages ranging from 0% to 11.5%. The results obtained suggest that increased age, being male and consuming pork as well as a larger proportion of roaming pigs and percentage of sand in the soil measured at the village level were associated with higher prevalences of infection. Furthermore, consuming pork at another village market had the highest increased prevalence odds of current infection. Having access to a latrine, living in a household with higher wealth quintiles and a higher soil pH measured at the village level decreased the prevalence odds of cysticercosis. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: This is the first large-scale study to examine the association between variables measured at the individual-, household-, and village-level and the prevalence odds of cysticercosis in humans. Factors linked to people, pigs, and the environment were of importance, which further supports the need for a One Health approach to control cysticercosis infection.

Changes in cardiovascular disease risk factors among American Indians. The Strong Heart Study.

PURPOSE: This study describes changes in cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors in older American Indians over a 4-year period. METHODS: The Strong Heart Study, a longitudinal population-based study of CVD and CVD risk factors among American Indians aged 45-74 years, measured CVD risk factors among 3638 members of 13 tribes in three geographic areas during examinations in 1989 to 1991 and 1993 to 1995. RESULTS: Changes in mean low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol and the prevalence of elevated LDL cholesterol were inconsistent. Mean high- density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol decreased, and the prevalence of low HDL cholesterol increased throughout. Mean systolic blood pressure and hypertension rates increased in nearly all center-sex groups, and hypertension awareness and treatment improved. Smoking rates decreased but remained higher than national rates except among Arizona women. Mean weight and percentage body fat decreased in nearly all center-sex groups but the prevalence of obesity did not change significantly in any group. Diabetes and albuminuria prevalence rates increased throughout the study population. The prevalence of alcohol use decreased, but binge drinking remained common in those who continued to drink. CONCLUSIONS: Improvements in management and prevention of hypertension, diabetes, renal disease, and obesity, and programs to further reduce smoking and alcohol abuse, are urgently needed.

Acute macular neuroretinopathy: a review of the literature.

Acute macular neuroretinopathy (AMNR) is a rare condition that produces transient or permanent visual impairment. Typical cases have acute onset multifocal scotomas that correspond rather precisely with reddish, flat, or depressed circumscribed lesions in the macula. These lesions are wedge-shaped and generally point toward the fovea. The pathophysiology of AMNR is unclear, the causes are uncertain, and there is no specific treatment for this condition. This review summarizes the presentation, possible risk factors, and prognosis of the 41 cases of AMNR reported in the published, English-language literature from 1975 through April 2002. Possible areas for future research into the etiology of this rare condition are discussed.

Associations of postmenopausal hormone therapy with markers of hemostasis and inflammation and lipid profiles in diabetic and nondiabetic american Indian women: the strong heart study.

OBJECTIVES: To examine the associations of postmenopausal hormone therapy (PHT) with indicators of hemostasis and inflammation and with lipid profiles in American Indian women and to determine if diabetes modifies these associations. METHODS: This report is a cross-sectional analysis of data from 1446 postmenopausal women who were free from cardiovascular disease (CVD) at the second Strong Heart Study examination (1993-1995). Diabetes was diagnosed by WHO criteria. Postmenopausal hormone use was ascertained by review of the medications brought to the examination or by medical record review. Lipoproteins, plasminogen activator inhibitor type 1 (PAI-1), fibrinogen, and C-reactive protein (CRP) were measured in fasting plasma samples. RESULTS: Among nondiabetic women, current PHT users had lower mean fibrinogen, PAI1, and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDLC) levels than those in never users (38.4 mg/dl, 8.68 ng/ml, and 14.16 mg/dl lower, respectively) but higher CRP and triglyceride levels (1.53 mg/l and 31.43 mg/dl higher, respectively). Multivariate adjustment did not alter any of these associations. In diabetic women, current PHT use was associated only with lower PAI-1 (5.48 ng/ml lower) and higher high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDLC) levels (3.33 mg/dl higher) compared with never users. CONCLUSIONS: In American Indian women without diabetes, PHT was associated with lower levels of hemostatic markers but higher levels of an inflammatory marker. Associations were less marked in women with diabetes. The relation of PHT with lipid profiles also differed in nondiabetic and diabetic women. These data provide an additional rationale for considering diabetes status when deciding whether or not to use PHT.

Risk factors for injury in middle school football players.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about the frequency of or risk factors for injuries in middle school or junior high school football players. PURPOSE: To examine the associations of player characteristics (injury history, conditioning, player position, special equipment) and physical parameters (body mass index, weight, height, grip strength) with risk of injury. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. METHODS: We documented risk factors for injury in 646 middle school football players, 10 to 15 years of age, in the Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, school district during the 1998 and 1999 seasons. Player characteristics and physical parameters were measured at the beginning of both seasons. Logistic regression methods were used to determine whether baseline variables were associated with the odds of subsequent injury. RESULTS: More playing experience was the only variable significantly associated with the risk of injury in multivariate analyses. This association was observed regardless of the type of injury and even after indirectly controlling for time at risk of injury by restricting analyses to first-string players. Increasing age was significantly associated with the risk of fractures. CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest that physical characteristics play a minor role in risk of injury from football in this age group.

Risk factors for injury in high school football players.

BACKGROUND: Many studies have reported the frequency and types of injuries in high school football players. However, few have assessed the relationship between player characteristics and risk of injury. PURPOSE: To describe the epidemiologic characteristics of and risk factors for injury in high school football players and to determine whether players' characteristics could be used to predict subsequent injury. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. METHODS: This study was part of a 2-year prospective investigation (1998 to 1999) of risk factors for injury in 717 (343 in the 1998 season and 374 in the 1999 season) high school football players in the Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, School District. Player characteristics (playing experience, position, injury history) and physical parameters (body mass index, weight, height, grip strength) were measured at the beginning of each season. Logistic regression analysis was used to determine whether any of the baseline variables were associated with the odds of subsequent injury. RESULTS: The physical characteristics of players, such as body mass index and strength, were not associated with risk of injury. More playing experience and a history of injury in the previous season were significantly related to increased risk. Linemen were at the highest risk of injury, particularly knee injuries and season-ending injuries. CONCLUSIONS: Future research should focus on decreasing the risk of injury to linemen.

Higher coated-platelet levels are associated with stroke recurrence following nonlacunar brain infarction.

Coated-platelets are procoagulant platelets observed upon dual-agonist stimulation with collagen and thrombin. Coated-platelet levels are elevated in patients with nonlacunar (large-vessel) ischemic stroke and decreased in patients with spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage as compared with controls. The purpose of this study was to investigate a possible relationship between coated-platelet levels and stroke recurrence in patients with nonlacunar ischemic stroke. We assayed coated-platelet levels in 190 consecutive patients with nonlacunar stroke who were followed for up to 12 months; 20 subjects experienced recurrent stroke. Subjects were categorized into tertiles of coated-platelet levels. The distributions of time-to-recurrent stroke were estimated for each tertile using cumulative incidence curves and compared statistically using a log-rank test. The cumulative incidence of recurrent stroke at 12 months differed among the coated-platelet tertiles: 2% for the first tertile (lowest coated-platelet levels), 18% for the second tertile, and 17% for the third tertile (overall log-rank test, P=0.019). These data suggest that higher levels of coated-platelets, measured shortly after a nonlacunar stroke, are associated with an increased incidence of stroke recurrence. This observation offers an additional tool for identifying patients at highest risk for stroke recurrence following a nonlacunar (large-vessel) infarct.

Changing to AIS 2005 and agreement of injury severity scores in a trauma registry with scores based on manual chart review.

BACKGROUND: The Abbreviated Injury Scale (AIS) recently underwent a major revision from AIS 98 to AIS 05. AIS injury codes form the basis of widely used injury severity scores such as the injury severity score (ISS). ISS thresholds are often used in trauma case definitions and ISS is widely used in injury research to adjust for injury severity. This study evaluated changes from AIS 98 to AIS 05, the changes' effect on ISS distributions, and presents an application of the results. METHODS: Injury descriptions from medical records of 137 randomly selected patients in the Oklahoma Trauma Registry (OTR) were obtained. A single trained coder used AIS 98 and AIS 05 to code each injury. ISS values were calculated and grouped into 4 categories: 1-8, 9-14, 16-24, >24. Paired ISS was compared using Kappa statistics and tests of symmetry. We identified common injury diagnoses for which AIS severity changed between versions. Estimates of the proportion of patients changing ISS groups were applied to the entire OTR to assess the impact on reporting and on a model for reimbursement. RESULTS: OTR AIS 98 and manual AIS 98-based ISS values had a weighted Kappa of 0.71. OTR AIS 98 and manual AIS 05-based ISS values had a Kappa of 0.58. Manual AIS 98 and manual AIS 05 ISS had the highest Kappa of 0.81, however, though the scores differed by only 1 ISS category, there were 30 discordant pairs. The distribution of these discordant pairs was not symmetrical (Bowker's S=30; df=6; p<0.0001) with AIS 05-based ISS values consistently shifted to a lower ISS category. Reductions in AIS severity and ISS values using AIS 05 were common for extremity fractures and thorax injuries. The results suggest fewer patients would be reported to the OTR or be eligible for reimbursement. DISCUSSION: Changing from AIS 98 to AIS 05 injury coding resulted in systematic changes in AIS codes and ISS. Specific injuries and body regions were differentially affected. Trauma registries and injury researchers that use AIS based injury coding can use this information to evaluate the potential impact of changes in AIS 2005.