A Decade of Tweets: Visualizing Racial Sentiments Towards Minoritized Groups in the United States Between 2011 and 2021.

BACKGROUND: Research has demonstrated the negative impact of racism on health, yet the measurement of racial sentiment remains challenging. This article provides practical guidance on using social media data for measuring public sentiment. METHODS: We describe the main steps of such research, including data collection, data cleaning, binary sentiment analysis, and visualization of findings. We randomly sampled 55,844,310 publicly available tweets from 1 January 2011 to 31 December 2021 using Twitter's Application Programming Interface. We restricted analyses to US tweets in English using one or more 90 race-related keywords. We used a Support Vector Machine, a supervised machine learning model, for sentiment analysis. RESULTS: The proportion of tweets referencing racially minoritized groups that were negative increased at the county, state, and national levels, with a 16.5% increase at the national level from 2011 to 2021. Tweets referencing Black and Middle Eastern people consistently had the highest proportion of negative sentiment compared with all other groups. Stratifying temporal trends by racial and ethnic groups revealed unique patterns reflecting historical events specific to each group, such as the killing of George Floyd regarding sentiment of posts referencing Black people, discussions of the border crisis near the 2018 midterm elections and anti-Latinx sentiment, and the emergence of COVID-19 and anti-Asian sentiment. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates the utility of social media data as a quantitative means to measure racial sentiment over time and place. This approach can be extended to a range of public health topics to investigate how changes in social and cultural norms impact behaviors and policy.A supplemental digital video is available at http://links.lww.com/EDE/C91.

Examining Twitter-Derived Negative Racial Sentiment as Indicators of Cultural Racism: Observational Associations With Preterm Birth and Low Birth Weight Among a Multiracial Sample of Mothers, 2011-2021.

BACKGROUND: Large racial and ethnic disparities in adverse birth outcomes persist. Increasing evidence points to the potential role of racism in creating and perpetuating these disparities. Valid measures of area-level racial attitudes and bias remain elusive, but capture an important and underexplored form of racism that may help explain these disparities. Cultural values and attitudes expressed through social media reflect and shape public norms and subsequent behaviors. Few studies have quantified attitudes toward different racial groups using social media with the aim of examining associations with birth outcomes. OBJECTIVE: We used Twitter data to measure state-level racial sentiments and investigate associations with preterm birth (PTB) and low birth weight (LBW) in a multiracial or ethnic sample of mothers in the United States. METHODS: A random 1% sample of publicly available tweets from January 1, 2011, to December 31, 2021, was collected using Twitter's Academic Application Programming Interface (N=56,400,097). Analyses were on English-language tweets from the United States that used one or more race-related keywords. We assessed the sentiment of each tweet using support vector machine, a supervised machine learning model. We used 5-fold cross-validation to assess model performance and achieved high accuracy for negative sentiment classification (91%) and a high F1 score (84%). For each year, the state-level racial sentiment was merged with birth data during that year (~3 million births per year). We estimated incidence ratios for LBW and PTB using log binomial regression models, among all mothers, Black mothers, racially minoritized mothers (Asian, Black, or Latina mothers), and White mothers. Models were controlled for individual-level maternal characteristics and state-level demographics. RESULTS: Mothers living in states in the highest tertile of negative racial sentiment for tweets referencing racial and ethnic minoritized groups had an 8% higher (95% CI 3%-13%) incidence of LBW and 5% higher (95% CI 0%-11%) incidence of PTB compared to mothers living in the lowest tertile. Negative racial sentiment referencing racially minoritized groups was associated with adverse birth outcomes in the total population, among minoritized mothers, and White mothers. Black mothers living in states in the highest tertile of negative Black sentiment had 6% (95% CI 1%-11%) and 7% (95% CI 2%-13%) higher incidence of LBW and PTB, respectively, compared to mothers living in the lowest tertile. Negative Latinx sentiment was associated with a 6% (95% CI 1%-11%) and 3% (95% CI 0%-6%) higher incidence of LBW and PTB among Latina mothers, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Twitter-derived negative state-level racial sentiment toward racially minoritized groups was associated with a higher risk of adverse birth outcomes among the total population and racially minoritized groups. Policies and supports establishing an inclusive environment accepting of all races and cultures may decrease the overall risk of adverse birth outcomes and reduce racial birth outcome disparities.

Food cultures and aging: a qualitative study of grandparents' food perceptions and influence of food choice on younger generations.

OBJECTIVE: To explore food perceptions among grandparents and understand the influence of these perceptions on food choice for the younger generations in their family. DESIGN: Qualitative methodology, thematic analysis of the transcripts from fourteen focus groups. SETTING: Grandparents in the southern region of the United States. SUBJECTS: Participants were fifty-eight Black, Hispanic, and White grandparents, predominantly women (72%), ranging in age from 44-86 years (mean age = 65·4 (sd 9·97) years). RESULTS: Grandparents' perceptions related to personal food choice were related to health issues and the media. Grandparents' perceived influence on their children's and grandchildren's food choices was described through the themes of proximity and power (level of influence based on an interaction of geographic proximity to grandchildren and the power given to them by their children and grandchildren to make food decisions), healthy v. unhealthy spoiling, cultural food tradition, and reciprocal exchange of knowledge. CONCLUSION: Our results highlight areas for future research including nutrition interventions for older adults as well as factors that may be helpful to consider when engaging grandparents concerning food decisions for younger generations to promote health. Specifically, power should be assessed as part of a holistic approach to addressing dietary influence, the term 'healthy spoiling' can be used to reframe notions of traditional spoiling, and the role of cultural food tradition should be adapted differently by race.

Health Marketing for the Massachusetts Childhood Obesity Research Demonstration Study: A Case Study.

Introduction. This case study describes the Massachusetts Childhood Obesity Research Demonstration Study (MA-CORD) health marketing campaign, examines the strategies used in such campaigns, and offers lessons learned to improve health marketing for future interventions. MA-CORD Health Marketing Components and Implementation. The three main components were an outdoor printed advertisement and texting campaign, social media with a focus on Facebook, and the Summer Passport Program, an event-based initiative in parks for children. The advertisements consisted of billboards, bus advertisements, and handouts. The text messaging component, which required families to actively text a keyword to join, had a low opt-in rate. Facebook page "likes" increased from 1,024 to 1,453 in New Bedford and from 175 to 1,091 in Fitchburg. Fitchburg received technical assistance and paid for ads on Facebook. The Summer Passport participation in parks ranged from 120 to 875 children with participation in the free park lunch program doubling in Fitchburg. Discussion. Key lessons learned are engage communication experts from each community at the beginning of the project, use text messaging components with in-person staff onsite to assist participants in the opt-in process, build momentum for a Facebook presence through purchasing Facebook advertisements, and partner with local park departments for programming.

Using School Staff Members to Implement a Childhood Obesity Prevention Intervention in Low-Income School Districts: the Massachusetts Childhood Obesity Research Demonstration (MA-CORD Project), 2012-2014.

INTRODUCTION: Although evidence-based interventions to prevent childhood obesity in school settings exist, few studies have identified factors that enhance school districts' capacity to undertake such efforts. We describe the implementation of a school-based intervention using classroom lessons based on existing "Eat Well and Keep Moving" and "Planet Health" behavior change interventions and schoolwide activities to target 5,144 children in 4th through 7th grade in 2 low-income school districts. METHODS: The intervention was part of the Massachusetts Childhood Obesity Research Demonstration (MA-CORD) project, a multisector community-based intervention implemented from 2012 through 2014. Using mixed methods, we operationalized key implementation outcomes, including acceptability, adoption, appropriateness, feasibility, implementation fidelity, perceived implementation cost, reach, and sustainability. RESULTS: MA-CORD was adopted in 2 school districts that were facing resource limitations and competing priorities. Although strong leadership support existed in both communities at baseline, one district's staff reported less schoolwide readiness and commitment. Consequently, fewer teachers reported engaging in training, teaching lessons, or planning to sustain the lessons after MA-CORD. Interviews showed that principal and superintendent turnover, statewide testing, and teacher burnout limited implementation; passionate wellness champions in schools appeared to offset implementation barriers. CONCLUSION: Future interventions should assess adoption readiness at both leadership and staff levels, offer curriculum training sessions during school hours, use school nurses or health teachers as wellness champions to support teachers, and offer incentives such as staff stipends or play equipment to encourage school participation and sustained intervention activities.

Are K-12 school environments harming students with obesity? A qualitative study of classroom teachers.

PURPOSE: Weight bias can negatively impact health, and schools may be risky environments for students with obesity. We aimed to explore teachers' perceptions of the school experiences and academic challenges of students with obesity. METHODS: We conducted interviews with 22 teachers in the Northeast, mid-Atlantic, and Midwest in July-August 2014. All interviews were transcribed verbatim, coded, and analyzed for important themes by two researchers using the immersion/crystallization approach. RESULTS: Most teachers felt that students with obesity were more likely to have academic difficulties. Two main perceptions of the reasons for these difficulties emerged: (1) obesity led to lower self-esteem that caused students to participate less, and (2) poorer nutrition, increased screen time, and reduced physical activity were simultaneously causing obesity and poorer academic performance. A few teachers described colleagues who felt students with obesity were not as motivated to work hard in school as their peers. Many teachers described school health promotion efforts focused on weight reduction that could exacerbate weight stigma and risk of disordered eating. CONCLUSIONS: Students with obesity, particularly girls, may be at risk for negative social and academic experiences in K-12 schools and may be perceived as struggling academically by their teachers.

A qualitative study of gestational weight gain goal setting.

BACKGROUND: Gestational weight gain (GWG) is an important predictor of short and long-term pregnancy outcomes for both mother and child, and women who set a GWG goal are more likely to gain within recommended ranges. Little information is available regarding potentially modifiable factors that underlie a woman's GWG goals. Our aims were to explore women's perceptions regarding factors that affect GWG, their understanding of appropriate GWG, their goal-setting experiences including patient-health care provider (HCP) conversations, and supportive interventions they would most like to help them achieve the recommended GWG. METHODS: We conducted nine in-depth interviews and seven focus groups with a total of 33 Boston, Massachusetts (MA) area women who were pregnant and had delivered within the prior 6 months. We recorded and transcribed all interviews. Two investigators independently coded resulting transcripts. We managed data using MAXQDA2 and conducted a content analysis. RESULTS: Perceived factors that contributed to GWG goal-setting included the mother's weight control behaviors concerning exercise and diet-including a "new way of eating for two" and "semblance of control", experiences during prior pregnancies, conversations with HCPs, and influence from various information sources. Women focused on behaviors with consistent messaging across multiple sources of information, but mainly trusted their HCP, valued one-to-one conversations with them about GWG, preferred that the HCP initiate the conversation about GWG goals, and would be open to have the conversation started based on visual aid based on their own GWG progression. CONCLUSIONS: Pregnant women highly value discussions with their HCP to set GWG goals. Pregnant women view their clinicians as the most reliable source of information and believe that clinicians should open weight-related discussions throughout pregnancy.

The Role of Health Information Sources in Decision-Making Among Hispanic Mothers During Their Children's First 1000 Days of Life.

OBJECTIVES: This qualitative research aimed to explore how health information sources inform decision-making among Hispanic mothers during their children's first 1000 days of life (conception-age 24 months), and to generate appropriate health information sources and communication strategies for future interventions. METHODS: We conducted seven focus groups with 49 Hispanic women who were pregnant or had children <2 years old. Domains included interpersonal and media sources, source trustworthiness, dealing with contradictory information, and how information affects decision-making. We used immersion/crystallization process for analysis. RESULTS: Trusted health information sources included health care providers, female and male family members, BabyCenter.com and other Internet sources, selected social media, and television. Some immigrant women reported preferring the Internet citing less established local support networks. Women highlighted the importance of validating health information through checking multiple sources for consistency and resolving contradictory information. Mothers expressed interest in receiving reliable website links from healthcare professionals and outreach to extended family. CONCLUSIONS FOR PRACTICE: Cultural factors, including immigration status, are important in understanding the use of health information sources and their role in decision-making about pregnancy and child health among Hispanic mothers. Healthcare providers and public health professionals should consider Hispanic mothers health information environment and provide culturally-relevant communication strategies and interventions during this high information-seeking time period.

Experiences of racism in the U.S. - A perspective from Asian & Pacific Islander, Black, Latina, and Middle Eastern women.

Introduction: Racism is a critical social determinant of health because it can have a direct impact on health and well-being, as well as infiltrate systems, policies, and practices. Few studies have explored the similarities and differences of experiences with racism and health between different minoritized groups. The objective of this paper is to examine how racism influences life experiences from the perspectives of Asian & Pacific Islander, Black, Latina, and Middle Eastern women. Methods: Eleven online racially/ethnically homogeneous focus groups with a total of 52 participants were conducted in the U.S., with representation from the North, South, and West coast. The online focus groups were recorded, transcribed, and two were translated into English (from Vietnamese and Spanish). The data was coded through NVivo and analyzed through a series of team meetings to establish themes. Results: Participants reported experiences of racism and discrimination, including physical and verbal personal attacks. They shared the role of microaggressions in their daily life, along with the ubiquitous anti-Black sentiment discussed in every group. Our participants discussed the complexities of intersectionality in their experience of discrimination, specifically regarding immigration status, language spoken, and gender. Participants also reported the role of direct racism and vicarious racism (e.g., the experiences with racism of friends or family, awareness of racist incidents via the news) in affecting their mental health. Some effects were fear, stress, anxiety, depression, and self-censoring. For participants in the Black and Latina focus groups, mental health stressors often manifested into physical issues. Discussion: Understanding the nuances in experiences across racial/ethnic groups is beneficial in identifying potential interventions to prevent and address racism and its negative health impacts.

Vigilance and Protection: How Asian and Pacific Islander, Black, Latina, and Middle Eastern Women Cope with Racism.

BACKGROUND: Research is needed to fully investigate the differential mechanisms racial and ethnic groups use to deal with ongoing intersectional racism in women's lives. The aim of this paper was to understand how Asian American and Pacific Islander, Black, Latina, and Middle Eastern women experience racism-from personal perceptions and interactions to coping mechanisms and methods of protection. METHODS: A purposive sample of 52 participants participated in 11 online racially/ethnically homogeneous focus groups conducted throughout the USA. A team consensus approach was utilized with codebook development and thematic analysis. RESULTS: The findings relate to personal perceptions and interactions related to race and ethnicity, methods of protection against racism, vigilant behavior based on safety concerns, and unity across people of color. A few unique concerns by group included experiences of racism including physical violence among Asian American Pacific Islander groups, police brutality among Black groups, immigration discrimination in Latina groups, and religious discrimination in Middle Eastern groups. Changes in behavior for safety and protection include altering methods of transportation, teaching their children safety measures, and defending their immigration status. They shared strategies to help racial and ethnic minorities against racism including mental health resources and greater political representation. All racial and ethnic groups discussed the need for unity, solidarity, and allyship across various communities of color but for it to be authentic and long-lasting. CONCLUSION: Greater understanding of the types of racism specific groups experience can inform policies and cultural change to reduce those factors.

Improving Patient Health Literacy During Telehealth Visits Through Remote Teach-Back Methods Training for Family Medicine Residents: Pilot 2-Arm Cluster, Nonrandomized Controlled Trial.

BACKGROUND: As telemedicine plays an increasing role in health care delivery, providers are expected to receive adequate training to effectively communicate with patients during telemedicine encounters. Teach-back is an approach that verifies patients' understanding of the health care information provided by health care professionals. Including patients in the design and development of teach-back training content for providers can result in more relevant training content. However, only a limited number of studies embrace patient engagement in this capacity, and none for remote care settings. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to design and evaluate the feasibility of patient-centered, telehealth-focused teach-back training for family medicine residents to promote the use of teach-back during remote visits. METHODS: We codeveloped the POTENTIAL (Platform to Enhance Teach-Back Methods in Virtual Care Visits) curriculum for medical residents to promote teach-back during remote visits. A patient participated in the development of the workshop's videos and in a patient-provider panel about teach-back. We conducted a pilot, 2-arm cluster, nonrandomized controlled trial. Family medicine residents at the intervention site (n=12) received didactic and simulation-based training in addition to weekly cues-to-action. Assessment included pre- and postsurveys, observations of residents, and interviews with patients and providers. To assess differences between pre- and postintervention scores among the intervention group, chi-square and 1-tailed t tests were used. A total of 4 difference-in-difference models were constructed to evaluate prepost differences between intervention and control groups for each of the following outcomes: familiarity with teach-back, importance of teach-back, confidence in teach-back ability, and ease of use of teach-back. RESULTS: Medical residents highly rated their experience of the teach-back training sessions (mean 8.6/10). Most residents (9/12, 75%) used plain language during training simulations, and over half asked the role-playing patient to use their own words to explain what they were told during the encounter. Postintervention, there was an increase in residents' confidence in their ability to use teach-back (mean 7.33 vs 7.83; P=.04), but there was no statistically significant difference in familiarity with, perception of importance, or ease of use of teach-back. None of the difference-in-difference models were statistically significant. The main barrier to practicing teach-back was time constraints. CONCLUSIONS: This study highlights ways to effectively integrate best-practice training in telehealth teach-back skills into a medical residency program. At the same time, this pilot study points to important opportunities for improvement for similar interventions in future larger-scale implementation efforts, as well as ways to mitigate providers' concerns or barriers to incorporating teach-back in their practice. Teach-back can impact remote practice by increasing providers' ability to actively engage and empower patients by using the features (whiteboards, chat rooms, and mini-views) of their remote platform.

Racism During Pregnancy and Birthing: Experiences from Asian and Pacific Islander, Black, Latina, and Middle Eastern Women.

BACKGROUND: Despite persistent racial disparities in maternal health in the USA, there is limited qualitative research on women's experiences of discrimination during pregnancy and childbirth that focuses on similarities and differences across multiple racial groups. METHODS: Eleven focus groups with Asian American and Pacific Islander (AAPI), Black, Latina, and Middle Eastern women (N = 52) in the USA were conducted to discuss the extent to which racism and discrimination impact pregnancy and birthing experiences. RESULTS: Participants across groups talked about the role of unequal power dynamics, discrimination, and vulnerability in patient-provider relationships. Black participants noted the influence of prior mistreatment by providers in their healthcare decisions. Latinas expressed fears of differential care because of immigration status. Middle Eastern women stated that the Muslim ban bolstered stereotypes. Vietnamese participants discussed how the effect of racism on mothers' mental health could impact their children, while Black and Latina participants expressed constant racism-related stress for themselves and their children. Participants recalled better treatment with White partners and suggested a gradient of treatment based on skin complexion. Participants across groups expressed the value of racial diversity in healthcare providers and pregnancy/birthing-related support but warned that racial concordance alone may not prevent racism and emphasized the need to go beyond "band-aid solutions." CONCLUSION: Women's discussions of pregnancy and birthing revealed common and distinct experiences that varied by race, skin complexion, language, immigration status, and political context. These findings highlight the importance of qualitative research for informing maternal healthcare practices that reduce racial inequities.

Solidarity and strife after the Atlanta spa shootings: A mixed methods study characterizing Twitter discussions by qualitative analysis and machine learning.

Background: On March 16, 2021, a white man shot and killed eight victims, six of whom were Asian women at Atlanta-area spa and massage parlors. The aims of the study were to: (1) qualitatively summarize themes of tweets related to race, ethnicity, and racism immediately following the Atlanta spa shootings, and (2) examine temporal trends in expressions hate speech and solidarity before and after the Atlanta spa shootings using a new methodology for hate speech analysis. Methods: A random 1% sample of publicly available tweets was collected from January to April 2021. The analytic sample included 708,933 tweets using race-related keywords. This sample was analyzed for hate speech using a newly developed method for combining faceted item response theory with deep learning to measure a continuum of hate speech, from solidarity race-related speech to use of violent, racist language. A qualitative content analysis was conducted on random samples of 1,000 tweets referencing Asians before the Atlanta spa shootings from January to March 15, 2021 and 2,000 tweets referencing Asians after the shooting from March 17 to 28 to capture the immediate reactions and discussions following the shootings. Results: Qualitative themes that emerged included solidarity (4% before the shootings vs. 17% after), condemnation of the shootings (9% after), racism (10% before vs. 18% after), role of racist language during the pandemic (2 vs. 6%), intersectional vulnerabilities (4 vs. 6%), relationship between Asian and Black struggles against racism (5 vs. 7%), and discussions not related (74 vs. 37%). The quantitative hate speech model showed a decrease in the proportion of tweets referencing Asians that expressed racism (from 1.4% 7 days prior to the event from to 1.0% in the 3 days after). The percent of tweets referencing Asians that expressed solidarity speech increased by 20% (from 22.7 to 27.2% during the same time period) (p < 0.001) and returned to its earlier rate within about 2 weeks. Discussion: Our analysis highlights some complexities of discrimination and the importance of nuanced evaluation of online speech. Findings suggest the importance of tracking hate and solidarity speech. By understanding the conversations emerging from social media, we may learn about possible ways to produce solidarity promoting messages and dampen hate messages.

Examining Exposure to Messaging, Content, and Hate Speech from Partisan News Social Media Posts on Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities.

We investigated the content of liberal and conservative news media Facebook posts on race and ethnic health disparities. A total of 3,327,360 liberal and conservative news Facebook posts from the United States (US) from January 2015 to May 2022 were collected from the Crowd Tangle platform and filtered for race and health-related keywords. Qualitative content analysis was conducted on a random sample of 1750 liberal and 1750 conservative posts. Posts were analyzed for a continuum of hate speech using a newly developed method combining faceted Rasch item response theory with deep learning. Across posts referencing Asian, Black, Latinx, Middle Eastern, and immigrants/refugees, liberal news posts had lower hate scores compared to conservative posts. Liberal news posts were more likely to acknowledge and detail the existence of racial/ethnic health disparities, while conservative news posts were more likely to highlight the negative consequences of protests, immigration, and the disenfranchisement of Whites. Facebook posts from liberal and conservative news focus on different themes with fewer discussions of racial inequities in conservative news. Investigating the discourse on race and health in social media news posts may inform our understanding of the public's exposure to and knowledge of racial health disparities, and policy-level support for ameliorating these disparities.

Twitter Fingers and Echo Chambers: Exploring Expressions and Experiences of Online Racism Using Twitter.

Social media sites, such as Twitter, represent a growing setting in which racism and related stress may manifest. The aims of this exploratory qualitative study were to (1) understand the essence of Twitter users' lived experience with and response to content about race and racism on the platform, and (2) explore their perceptions of how discussions about race and racism on Twitter may impact health and well-being. We conducted six focus groups and four interviews with adult Twitter users (n = 27) from Berkeley, California, and Greenville, South Carolina. We managed the data with NVivo and conducted an interpretative phenomenological analysis to identify themes. Participants described Twitter content as displaying both overt and subtle expressions of racism, particularly for Black and Latinx people, and serving as an echo chamber where similar viewpoints are amplified. Participants described how Twitter users may feel emboldened to type offensive tweets based on the perception of anonymity, and that these tweets were sometimes met with community disapproval used to provide a collective calibration to restore the social norms of the online space. Participants perceived harmful mental, emotional, and physical health impacts of exposure to racist content on Twitter. Our participants responded to harmful race-related content through blocking users and following others in order to curate their Twitter feeds, actively engaging in addressing content, and reducing Twitter use. Twitter users reported witnessing racism on the platform and have found ways to protect their mental health and cope with discussions of race and racism in this social media environment.

Advocacy, Hesitancy, and Equity: Exploring U.S. Race-Related Discussions of the COVID-19 Vaccine on Twitter.

BACKGROUND: Our study aimed to describe themes of tweets related to COVID-19 vaccines, race, and ethnicity to explore the context of the intersection of these topics on Twitter. METHODS: We utilized Twitter's Streaming Application Programming Interface (API) to collect a random 1% sample of publicly available tweets from October 2020 to January 2021. The study team conducted a qualitative content analysis from the full data set of 1110 tweets. RESULTS: The tweets revealed vaccine support through vaccine affirmation, advocacy through reproach, a need for a vaccine, COVID-19 and racism, vaccine development and efficacy, racist vaccine humor, and news updates. Vaccine opposition was demonstrated through direct opposition, vaccine hesitancy, and adverse reactions. Conspiracy and misinformation included scientific misinformation, political misinformation, beliefs about immunity and protective behaviors, and race extermination conspiracy. Equity and access focused on overcoming history of medical racism, pointing out health disparities, and facilitators to vaccine access. Representation touted pride in development and role models, and politics discussed the role of politics in vaccines and international politics. CONCLUSION: Our analysis demonstrates that Twitter can provide nuances about multiple viewpoints on the vaccine related to race and ethnicity and can be beneficial in contributing to insights for public health messaging.

Progress and push-back: How the killings of Ahmaud Arbery, Breonna Taylor, and George Floyd impacted public discourse on race and racism on Twitter.

This study examined whether killings of George Floyd, Ahmaud Arbery, and Breonna Taylor by current or former law enforcement officers in 2020 were followed by shifts in public sentiment toward Black people. Methods: Google searches for the names "Ahmaud Arbery," "Breonna Taylor," and "George Floyd" were obtained from the Google Health Application Programming Interface (API). Using the Twitter API, we collected a 1% random sample of publicly available U.S. race-related tweets from November 2019-September 2020 (N = 3,380,616). Sentiment analysis was performed using Support Vector Machines, a supervised machine learning model. A qualitative content analysis was conducted on a random sample of 3,000 tweets to understand themes in discussions of race and racism and inform interpretation of the quantitative trends. Results: The highest rate of Google searches for any of the three names was for George Floyd during the week of May 31 to June 6, the week after his murder. The percent of tweets referencing Black people that were negative decreased by 32% (from 49.33% in November 4-9 to 33.66% in June 1-7) (p < 0.001), but this decline was temporary, lasting just a few weeks. Themes that emerged during the content analysis included discussion of race or racism in positive (14%) or negative (38%) tones, call for action related to racism (18%), and counter movement/arguments against racism-related changes (6%). Conclusion: Although there was a sharp decline in negative Black sentiment and increased public awareness of structural racism and desire for long-lasting social change, these shifts were transitory and returned to baseline after several weeks. Findings suggest that negative attitudes towards Black people remain deeply entrenched.

Exploring U.S. Shifts in Anti-Asian Sentiment with the Emergence of COVID-19.

Background: Anecdotal reports suggest a rise in anti-Asian racial attitudes and discrimination in response to COVID-19. Racism can have significant social, economic, and health impacts, but there has been little systematic investigation of increases in anti-Asian prejudice. Methods: We utilized Twitter's Streaming Application Programming Interface (API) to collect 3,377,295 U.S. race-related tweets from November 2019-June 2020. Sentiment analysis was performed using support vector machine (SVM), a supervised machine learning model. Accuracy for identifying negative sentiments, comparing the machine learning model to manually labeled tweets was 91%. We investigated changes in racial sentiment before and following the emergence of COVID-19. Results: The proportion of negative tweets referencing Asians increased by 68.4% (from 9.79% in November to 16.49% in March). In contrast, the proportion of negative tweets referencing other racial/ethnic minorities (Blacks and Latinx) remained relatively stable during this time period, declining less than 1% for tweets referencing Blacks and increasing by 2% for tweets referencing Latinx. Common themes that emerged during the content analysis of a random subsample of 3300 tweets included: racism and blame (20%), anti-racism (20%), and daily life impact (27%). Conclusion: Social media data can be used to provide timely information to investigate shifts in area-level racial sentiment.

Pride, Love, and Twitter Rants: Combining Machine Learning and Qualitative Techniques to Understand What Our Tweets Reveal about Race in the US.

Objective: Describe variation in sentiment of tweets using race-related terms and identify themes characterizing the social climate related to race. Methods: We applied a Stochastic Gradient Descent Classifier to conduct sentiment analysis of 1,249,653 US tweets using race-related terms from 2015-2016. To evaluate accuracy, manual labels were compared against computer labels for a random subset of 6600 tweets. We conducted qualitative content analysis on a random sample of 2100 tweets. Results: Agreement between computer labels and manual labels was 74%. Tweets referencing Middle Eastern groups (12.5%) or Blacks (13.8%) had the lowest positive sentiment compared to tweets referencing Asians (17.7%) and Hispanics (17.5%). Qualitative content analysis revealed most tweets were represented by the categories: negative sentiment (45%), positive sentiment such as pride in culture (25%), and navigating relationships (15%). While all tweets use one or more race-related terms, negative sentiment tweets which were not derogatory or whose central topic was not about race were common. Conclusion: This study harnesses relatively untapped social media data to develop a novel area-level measure of social context (sentiment scores) and highlights some of the challenges in doing this work. New approaches to measuring the social environment may enhance research on social context and health.

The Social Context of Substance Use and Perceived Risk among Rhode Island Urban Minority Adolescents.

Our qualitative study examined how stresses of daily life affected substance use and perceived risk among Black and Hispanic adolescents. We conducted 11 focus groups with students aged 13-25 in public and alternative schools in Providence, Rhode Island, using Bourdieu's Social Practice theoretical approach to guide questioning and data analysis. Despite participants' frequent marijuana use, they perceived the emphasis society places on substance use as misguided, obfuscating the persistence of more critical problems such as stress and reduced opportunity resulting from neighborhood violence, poor schools, financial difficulties, and home troubles. Drug use appeared not to be a catalyst but a response. Our findings underscore the need for prevention strategies to address systemic racism and structural conditions limiting opportunities in young people's lives. Planners should explore adolescents' pragmatic decision-making contexts and ways that social, health, and community resources can together contribute to conditions where adolescents have opportunities to make healthful choices.