Coccidioidomycosis Seroincidence and Risk among Military Personnel, Naval Air Station Lemoore, San Joaquin Valley, California, USA1.

We conducted a retrospective cohort study that tested 2,000 US military personnel for Coccidioides antibodies in a disease-endemic region. The overall incidence of seroconversion was 0.5 cases/100 person-years; 12.5% of persons who seroconverted had illnesses requiring medical care. No significant association was found between demographic characteristics and seroconversion or disease.

Case Series and Review of the Literature of Mycobacterium chelonae Infections of the Lower Extremities.

Mycobacterium chelonae infections involving the lower extremities are rare clinical entities that present a diagnostic challenge given its diverse clinical presentations ranging from superficial (e.g., cellulitis, painful vesicular lesions) to deep (e.g., tenosynovitis) infections. We present 1 cases of M chelonae infections of the feet diagnosed 6 to 12 months after initial symptoms representing the difficulty of diagnosing this condition. Both cases were successfully managed with aggressive surgical debridement and long durations of antibiotic therapy with long-term care. A comprehensive review of the literature of M chelonae infections of the lower extremities was performed to provide summary data on the presenting symptoms, examination findings, predisposing conditions, and management approaches of this rare, but emerging clinical entity. Our cases and comprehensive review serve to raise awareness of atypical mycobacterial infections, including M chelonae, and advocate for the early consideration of mycobacterial cultures in the diagnostic workup of chronic lower extremity infections especially in the setting of poor initial response to standard antibacterial therapies.

MRSA Infections in HIV-Infected People Are Associated with Decreased MRSA-Specific Th1 Immunity.

People with HIV infection are at increased risk for community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (CA-MRSA) skin and soft tissue infections (SSTIs). Lower CD4 T-cell counts, higher peak HIV RNA levels and epidemiological factors may be associated with increased risk but no specific immune defect has been identified. We aimed to determine the immunologic perturbations that predispose HIV-infected people to MRSA SSTIs. Participants with or without HIV infection and with MRSA SSTI, MRSA colonization or negative for MRSA were enrolled. Peripheral blood and skin biopsies from study participants were collected. Flow cytometry, flow cytometry with microscopy, multiplex assays of cell culture supernatants and immunohistochemistry were used to evaluate the nature of the immune defect predisposing HIV-infected people to MRSA infections. We found deficient MRSA-specific IFNγ+ CD4 T-cell responses in HIV-infected people with MRSA SSTIs compared to MRSA-colonized participants and HIV-uninfected participants with MRSA SSTIs. These IFNγ+ CD4 T cells were less polyfunctional in HIV-infected participants with SSTIs compared to those without SSTIs. However, IFNγ responses to cytomegalovirus and Mycobacterium avium antigens and MRSA-specific IL-17 responses by CD4 T cells were intact. Upon stimulation with MRSA, peripheral blood mononuclear cells from HIV-infected participants produced less IL-12 and IL-15, key drivers of IFNγ production. There were no defects in CD8 T-cell responses, monocyte responses, opsonization, or phagocytosis of Staphylococcus aureus. Accumulation of CD3 T cells, CD4 T cells, IL-17+ cells, myeloperoxidase+ neutrophils and macrophage/myeloid cells to the skin lesions were similar between HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected participants based on immunohistochemistry. Together, these results indicate that MRSA-specific IFNγ+ CD4 T-cell responses are essential for the control of initial and recurrent MRSA infections in HIV-infected people.

Risk Factors Associated With Suicide Completions Among US Enlisted Marines.

US enlisted Marines have experienced a substantial increase in suicide rates. We sought to identify risk factors for suicide completions among male Marines who entered basic training in San Diego, California, between June 2001 and October 2010. Suicides that occurred during active-duty military service were counted from June 1, 2001, through June 30, 2012. A total of 108,930 male Marines (66,286 deployers and 42,644 never deployed) were followed for 467,857 person-years of active-duty service time. Of the 790 deaths, 123 (15.6%) were suicides. In the final multivariate hazard model, preservice characteristics of not being a high-school graduate (hazard ratio (HR) = 2.17, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.28, 3.68) and being a smoker at the time of enlistment (HR = 1.91, 95% CI: 1.32, 2.76) were significantly associated with a higher risk for suicide completion. Diagnosed with traumatic brain injury (HR = 4.09, 95% CI: 2.08, 8.05), diagnosed with depression (HR = 2.36, 95% CI: 1.22, 4.58), and received relationship counseling (HR = 3.71, 95% CI: 1.44, 9.54) during military service were significant risks for suicide death. Deployment alone was not significantly associated with a risk for suicide death (HR = 0.53, 95% CI: 0.26, 1.05).

A 10-Year Retrospective Review of Nephrolithiasis in the Navy and Navy Pilots.

PURPOSE: Little is known about the incidence of nephrolithiasis in the United States Navy. Navy pilots must be kidney stone-free and are often referred for treatment of small asymptomatic stones. The primary objectives of this study were to determine the incidence of nephrolithiasis and computerized tomography, proportion undergoing treatment and incidence of stone related mishaps in Navy pilots compared with other Navy personnel. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We retrospectively studied the records of all Navy service members from 2002 to 2011 for nephrolithiasis based on ICD-9 stone codes to determine the mentioned rates. We also reviewed NSC (Naval Safety Center) data for a history of accidents associated with nephrolithiasis. Rates of disease were calculated using person-years of followup and inferential statistics were done using univariable and multivariable analyses. RESULTS: We evaluated 667,840 Navy personnel with a total of 3,238,331 person-years of followup. The annual incidence of nephrolithiasis was 240/100,000 person-years with a 5-year recurrence rate of 35.3%. On multivariable analysis pilots had nephrolithiasis incidence and treatment rates similar to those of the overall Navy population. Women had a higher incidence of nephrolithiasis compared with men (OR 1.17, p <0.0001). The rate of computerized tomography was lower in pilots than in the rest of the Navy (39 vs 66/10,000 person-years, p <0.0001). No recorded accidents were associated with kidney stones. CONCLUSIONS: Navy pilots had a similar incidence of nephrolithiasis and were no more likely to undergo a surgical procedure. Given that no accidents were associated with nephrolithiasis, this study suggests reconsidering current military policies necessitating pilots to be completely stone-free.

Necrotizing fasciitis due to Serratia marcescens: case report and review of the literature.

BACKGROUND: Necrotizing fasciitis is a severe, life-threatening infection.  Serratia marcescens, a Gram-negative bacterium, is an extremely rare cause of necrotizing fasciitis. METHODS: A case of S. marcescens necrotizing fasciitis is described, and a comprehensive review of the literature (1966-2015) of monomicrobial cases due to this organism performed. RESULTS: We report the first case of S. marcescens necrotizing fasciitis in the setting of calciphylaxis associated with end-stage renal disease.  A comprehensive review of the literature of S. marcescens necrotizing fasciitis is provided to enhance the awareness of this increasingly recognized infection, and to provide a concise summary of risk factors, treatment, and outcome. CONCLUSIONS: Our case and review highlight the potential risk factors for S. marcescens necrotizing fasciitis, including underlying renal disease and open wounds, and demonstrate the emergence of this organism as a cause of severe, life-threatening soft tissue infections.

Impact of combat deployment and posttraumatic stress disorder on newly reported coronary heart disease among US active duty and reserve forces.

BACKGROUND: The recent conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan have exposed thousands of service members to intense stress, and as a result, many have developed posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The role of military deployment experiences and PTSD in coronary heart disease (CHD) is not well defined, especially in young US service members with recent combat exposure. METHODS AND RESULTS: We conducted a prospective cohort study to investigate the relationships between wartime experiences, PTSD, and CHD. Current and former US military personnel from all service branches participating in the Millennium Cohort Study during 2001 to 2008 (n=60 025) were evaluated for newly self-reported CHD. Electronic medical record review for International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification codes for CHD was conducted among a subpopulation of active duty members (n=23 794). Logistic regression models examined the associations between combat experiences and PTSD with CHD with adjustment for established CHD risk factors. A total of 627 participants (1.0%) newly reported CHD over an average of 5.6 years of follow-up. Deployers with combat experiences had an increased odds of newly reporting CHD (odds ratio, 1.63; 95% confidence interval, 1.11-2.40) and having a diagnosis code for new-onset CHD (odds ratio, 1.93; 95% confidence interval, 1.31-2.84) compared with noncombat deployers. Screening positive for PTSD symptoms was associated with self-reported CHD before but not after adjustment for depression and anxiety and was not associated with a new diagnosis code for CHD. CONCLUSIONS: Combat deployments are associated with new-onset CHD among young US service members and veterans. Experiences of intense stress may increase the risk for CHD over a relatively short period among young adults.

Fecal microbiota transplantation and successful resolution of multidrug-resistant-organism colonization.

We report a case in which fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) utilized for relapsing Clostridium difficile colitis successfully eradicated colonization with several multidrug-resistant organisms (MDROs). FMT may have an additive benefit of reducing MDRO carriage and should be further investigated as a potential measure to eradicate additional potentially virulent organisms beyond C. difficile.

Longitudinal Investigation of Smoking Initiation and Relapse Among Younger and Older US Military Personnel.

OBJECTIVES: We examined whether military service, including deployment and combat experience, were related to smoking initiation and relapse. METHODS: We included older (panel 1) and younger (panel 2) participants in the Millennium Cohort Study. Never smokers were followed for 3 to 6 years for smoking initiation, and former smokers were followed for relapse. Complementary log-log regression models estimated the relative risk (RR) of initiation and relapse by military exposure while adjusting for demographic, health, and lifestyle factors. RESULTS: Deployment with combat experience predicted higher initiation rate (panel 1: RR = 1.44; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.28, 1.62; panel 2: RR = 1.26; 95% CI = 1.04, 1.54) and relapse rate (panel 1 only: RR = 1.48; 95% CI = 1.36, 1.62). Depending on the panel, previous mental health disorders, life stressors, and other military and nonmilitary characteristics independently predicted initiation and relapse. CONCLUSIONS: Deployment with combat experience and previous mental disorder may identify military service members in need of intervention to prevent smoking initiation and relapse.

Associations of military divorce with mental, behavioral, and physical health outcomes.

BACKGROUND: Divorce has been linked with poor physical and mental health outcomes among civilians. Given the unique stressors experienced by U.S. service members, including lengthy and/or multiple deployments, this study aimed to examine the associations of recent divorce on health and military outcomes among a cohort of U.S. service members. METHODS: Millennium Cohort participants from the first enrollment panel, married at baseline (2001-2003), and married or divorced at follow-up (2004-2006), (N = 29,314). Those divorced were compared to those who remained married for mental, behavioral, physical health, and military outcomes using logistic regression models. RESULTS: Compared to those who remained married, recently divorced participants were significantly more likely to screen positive for new-onset posttraumatic stress disorder, depression, smoking initiation, binge drinking, alcohol-related problems, and experience moderate weight gain. However, they were also more likely be in the highest 15(th) percentile of physical functioning, and be able to deploy within the subsequent 3-year period after divorce. CONCLUSIONS: Recent divorce among military members was associated with adverse mental health outcomes and risky behaviors, but was also associated with higher odds of subsequent deployment. Attention should be given to those recently divorced regarding mental health and substance abuse treatment and prevention strategies.

Prescription Stimulants and PTSD Among U.S. Military Service Members.

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a prevalent condition among military service members and civilians who have experienced traumatic events. Stimulant use has been postulated to increase the risk of incident PTSD; however, research in this area is lacking. In this study, the association between receipt of prescription stimulants and PTSD was examined in a secondary analysis among active duty U.S. military members (n = 25,971), participating in the Millennium Cohort Study, who completed a baseline (2001-2003) and two follow-up surveys (between 2004-2008). Prescription stimulant data were obtained from the military Pharmacy Data Transaction Service. PTSD was assessed using the PTSD Checklist-Civilian Version and incident PTSD was defined as meeting the criteria at follow-up among those who did not have a history of PTSD at baseline. Overall, 1,215 (4.7%) persons developed new-onset PTSD during follow-up. Receipt of prescription stimulants were significantly associated with incident PTSD, hazard ratio = 5.09, 95% confidence interval [3.05, 8.50], after adjusting for sociodemographic factors, military characteristics, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, baseline mental and physical health status, deployment experiences, and physical/sexual trauma. Findings suggested that prescription stimulants are associated with incident PTSD among military personnel; these data may inform the underlying pathogenesis of and preventive strategies for PTSD.

Recent Sexual Trauma and Adverse Health and Occupational Outcomes Among U.S. Service Women.

Sexual trauma is prevalent among military women, but data on potential effects are needed. The association of sexual trauma with health and occupational outcomes was investigated using longitudinal data from the Millennium Cohort Study. Of 13,001 U.S. service women, 1,364 (10.5%) reported recent sexual harassment and 374 (2.9%) recent sexual assault. Women reporting recent sexual harassment or assault were more likely to report poorer mental health: OR = 1.96, 95% CI [1.71, 2.25], and OR = 3.45, 95% CI [2.67, 4.44], respectively. They reported poorer physical health: OR = 1.39, 95% CI [1.20, 1.62], and OR = 1.39, 95% CI [1.04, 1.85], respectively. They reported difficulties in work/activities due to emotional health: OR = 1.80, 95% CI [1.59, 2.04], and OR = 2.70, 95% CI [2.12, 3.44], respectively. They also reported difficulties with physical health: OR = 1.55, 95% CI [1.37, 1.75], and OR = 1.52 95% CI [1.20, 1.91], respectively, after adjustment for demographic, military, health, and prior sexual trauma characteristics. Recent sexual harassment was associated with demotion, OR = 1.47, 95% CI [1.12, 1.93]. Findings demonstrated that sexual trauma represents a potential threat to military operational readiness and draws attention to the importance of prevention strategies and services to reduce the burden of sexual trauma on military victims.

Gender differences of postdeployment post-traumatic stress disorder among service members and veterans of the Iraq and Afghanistan conflicts.

Despite the marked expansion of roles for women in the US military over the last decade, whether differences by gender exist in regard to the development of mental health conditions postdeployment is unclear. This comprehensive review of the literature (2001-2012) examined whether US servicewomen were more likely than men to experience post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after returning from deployments to the Iraq and Afghanistan conflicts. Findings from 18 studies from 8 unique study populations were reviewed. Seven studies found that women had a higher risk for screening positive for PTSD compared with men, including prospectively designed studies that evaluated new-onset PTSD among members from all service branches. Although results from studies with Veterans Affairs samples found women at decreased risk in 4 analyses, these studies used the same source databases, were conducted in treatment-seeking populations, and were mostly unable to account for combat experience. Seven studies detected no differences by gender. In summary, women appeared to have a moderately higher risk for postdeployment PTSD, although there was a lack of consensus among the studies, and even those with the most rigorous methods were not designed specifically to evaluate potential gender differences. Given the limitations of the published literature, further research should use longitudinal study designs and comprehensive evaluations of deployment experiences while adjusting for predeployment factors to confirm that gender differences exist with regard to postdeployment PTSD.

Race/ethnicity and HAART initiation in a military HIV infected cohort.

BACKGROUND: Prior studies have suggested that HAART initiation may vary by race/ethnicity. Utilizing the U.S. military healthcare system, which minimizes confounding from healthcare access, we analyzed whether timing of HAART initiation and the appropriate initiation of primary prophylaxis among those at high risk for pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP) varies by race/ethnicity. METHODS: Participants in the U.S. Military HIV Natural History Study from 1998-2009 who had not initiated HAART before 1998 and who, based on DHHS guidelines, had a definite indication for HAART (CD4 <200, AIDS event or severe symptoms; Group A), an indication to consider HAART (including CD4 <350; Group B) or electively started HAART (CD4 >350; Group C) were analyzed for factors associated with HAART initiation. In a secondary analysis, participants were also evaluated for factors associated with starting primary PCP prophylaxis within four months of a CD4 count <200 cells/mm3. Multiple logistic regression was used to compare those who started vs. delayed therapy; comparisons were expressed as odds ratios (OR). RESULTS: 1262 participants were evaluated in the analysis of HAART initiation (A = 208, B = 637, C = 479 [62 participants were evaluated in both Groups A and B]; 94% male, 46% African American, 40% Caucasian). Race/ethnicity was not associated with HAART initiation in Groups A or B. In Group C, African American race/ethnicity was associated with lower odds of initiating HAART (OR 0.49, p = 0.04). Race and ethnicity were also not associated with the initiation of primary PCP prophylaxis among the 408 participants who were at risk. CONCLUSIONS: No disparities in the initiation of HAART or primary PCP prophylaxis according to race/ethnicity were seen among those with an indication for therapy. Among those electively initiating HAART at the highest CD4 cell counts, African American race/ethnicity was associated with decreased odds of starting. This suggests that free healthcare can potentially overcome some of the observed disparities in HIV care, but that unmeasured factors may contribute to differences in elective care decisions.

Comparison of the effectiveness of trivalent inactivated influenza vaccine and live, attenuated influenza vaccine in preventing influenza-like illness among US military service members, 2006-2009.

BACKGROUND: Influenza is a significant cause of morbidity, and vaccination is the preferred preventive strategy. Data regarding the preferred influenza vaccine type among adults are limited. METHODS: The effectiveness of 2 currently available influenza vaccines LAIV and TIV in preventing influenza-like illness (ILI) was compared among US military members (aged 18-49 years) during 3 consecutive influenza seasons (2006-2009). ILI, influenza, and pneumonia events post-vaccination were compared between vaccine types using Cox proportional hazard models adjusted for sociodemographic factors, occupation, and geographic area. RESULTS: A total of 41 670 vaccination events were evaluated, including 28 929 during 2 "well-matched" seasons (2006-2007 and 2008-2009: LAIV n = 22 734, TIV n = 6195) and 12 741 during a suboptimally matched season due to mild antigenic drift (2007-2008: LAIV n = 9447, TIV n = 3294). ILI crude incidence rates for LAIV and TIV were 139 and 127 cases per 1000 person-seasons for the well-matched seasons, respectively, and 150 and 165 cases per 1000 person-seasons for the suboptimally matched season, respectively. In the multivariable models, there were no differences in ILI events by vaccine type (well-matched seasons: hazard ratio [HR], 0.97; 95% confidence interval [CI], .90-1.06; suboptimally matched season: HR, 1.00; 95% CI, .90-1.11). There were also no differences in influenza and/or pneumonia events by vaccine group. CONCLUSIONS: Between 2006 and 2009, TIV and LAIV had similar effectiveness in preventing ILI and influenza/pneumonia events among healthy adults.

The impact of deployment experience and prior healthcare utilization on enrollment in a large military cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Longitudinal cohort studies are highly valued in epidemiologic research for their ability to establish exposure-disease associations through known temporal sequences. A major challenge in cohort studies is recruiting individuals representative of the targeted sample population to ensure the generalizability of the study's findings. METHODS: We evaluated nearly 350,000 invited subjects (from 2004-2008) of the Millennium Cohort Study, a prospective cohort study of the health of US military personnel, for factors prior to invitation associated with study enrollment. Multivariable logistic regression was utilized, adjusting for demographic and other confounders, to determine the associations between both deployment experience and prior healthcare utilization with enrollment into the study. RESULTS: Study enrollment was significantly greater among those who deployed prior to and/or during the enrollment cycles or had at least one outpatient visit in the 12 months prior to invitation. Mental disorders and hospitalization for more than two days within the past year were associated with reduced odds of enrollment. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest differential enrollment by deployment experience and health status, and may help guide recruitment efforts in future studies.

Myopericarditis and pericarditis in the deployed military member: a retrospective series.

In this study, we investigated the incidence and etiology of pericarditis and myopericarditis of military members deployed to Iraq and Kuwait from 2004 through 2008. The importance of acute pericarditis and myopericarditis in the deployed military service member has resurfaced with the reintroduction of the smallpox vaccination by the U.S. Department of Defense in 2002. There are limited epidemiologic data on acute pericarditis and myopericarditis in the general population. As a primary evacuation node for cardiology patients between 2004 and 2008, the United States Military Hospital Kuwait cardiology clinic was uniquely situated to reliably extrapolate epidemiologic data for U.S. Armed Service Members serving in the Middle East. Between these years, approximately 721,600 service members served in Kuwait and Iraq. A total of 70 cases of pericarditis and 9 cases of myopericarditis were diagnosed. This yields an estimated incidence of 7.4 and 0.95 cases per 100,000 per year for pericarditis and myopericarditis, respectively. A total of eleven patients had received the smallpox vaccine 4 to 30 days before being diagnosed with pericarditis or myopericarditis. Four of the eleven patients (36.3%) had pericarditis, with a mean duration of 28.3 days since vaccination. Seven of these eleven (63.6%) patients had myopericarditis, with a mean duration of 13.7 days since smallpox vaccination. The incidence of pericarditis and myopericarditis was lower than previously reported incidence rates in the population. In all cases of myopericarditis and pericarditis, smallpox vaccination was preferentially related to myopericarditis versus pericarditis.

Hepatitis B virus coinfection negatively impacts HIV outcomes in HIV seroconverters.

BACKGROUND: Understanding the impact of hepatitis B virus (HBV) in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) coinfection has been limited by heterogeneity of HIV disease. We evaluated HBV coinfection and HIV-related disease progression in a cohort of HIV seroconverters. METHODS: Participants with HIV diagnosis seroconversion window of ≤ 3 years and serologically confirmed HBV infection (HB) status were classified at baseline into 4 HB groups. The risk of clinical AIDS/death in HIV seroconverters was calculated by HB status. RESULTS: Of 2352 HIV seroconverters, 474 (20%) had resolved HB, 82 (3%) had isolated total antibody to hepatitis B core antigen (HBcAb), and 64 (3%) had chronic HB. Unadjusted rates (95% confidence intervals [CIs]) of clinical AIDS/death for the HB-negative, resolved HB, isolated HBcAb, and chronic HB groups were 2.43 (2.15-2.71); 3.27 (2.71-3.84); 3.75 (2.25-5.25); and 5.41 (3.41-7.42), respectively. The multivariable risk of clinical AIDS/death was significantly higher in the chronic HB group compared to the HB-negative group (hazard ratio [HR], 1.80; 95% CI, 1.20-2.69); while the HRs were increased but nonsignificant for those with resolved HB (HR, 1.17; 95% CI, .94-1.46) and isolated HBcAb (HR, 1.14; 95% CI, .75-1.75). CONCLUSIONS: HBV coinfection has a significant impact on HIV outcomes. The hazard for an AIDS or death event is almost double for those with chronic HB compared, with HIV-monoinfected persons.