The pace of secular changes of body measurements of children and adolescents from Kolkata (India) in the context of socioeconomic inequalities between the sexes.

OBJECTIVES: To examine the pace of secular changes of selected body measurements and proportions of children and adolescents from Kolkata (India), between 1952-1966 and 1999-2011 in the context of differences between the sexes. METHODS: The study group consisted of 7753 children, adolescents and young adults (7-21 years of age) included in two series of studies (1952-1966 and 2005-2011). The measurements included: body height, sitting height, biacromial and biiliocristal diameters, as well as body mass. Additionally, subishial leg length was derived. The pace of the observed intergenerational trends was estimated on the basis of the differences of the mean values of the analyzed characteristics between both cohorts and expressed as the change of a given parameter for a decade. Information regarding the educational and professional status of the parents of participants was obtained using a questionnaire. RESULTS: In the majority of the analyzed characteristics, the pace of intergenerational changes was significantly higher among males, in comparison to females. It was visible especially during adolescence-between 11 and 19 years of age. The positive trends, especially, for characteristics such as body height or limb lengths occurred significantly quicker in males, in comparison to females. CONCLUSIONS: There were significant differences between the sexes in the pace of secular changes regarding the growth of the examined population. Considering the relatively homogenous economic situation of the families of the participants, it was more likely that those discrepancies effected from the social and domestic division of sexes, and the resulting differences in growth and development conditions.

Time trends in mid-upper-arm anthropometry from 1982 to 2011 in male children and adolescents from Kolkata, India.

The aim of this study was to investigate inter-generational changes in selected mid-upper-arm measurements of boys from Kolkata, India. The analysis was based on the anthropometric measurements of two cohorts of Bengali boys aged 7-16 from middle-class families, in 1982-83 and 2005-11. The two cohorts were compared in terms of their mid-upper-arm circumference (MUAC) and mid-upper-arm area (MUAA), mid-upper-arm muscle area (MUAMA), mid-upper-arm fat area (MUAFA) and Arm Fat Index (AFI). The significances of the differences were determined using two-way ANOVA. All features differed significantly between the examined cohorts and all showed a general positive secular trend. In most cases, the biggest differences were noted for 14- and 16-year olds and the smallest for the youngest boys. The contemporary boys seemed to have more favourable overall developmental conditions, probably related to socioeconomic progress in India over recent decades.

Secular changes in limb lengths and proportions from 1952 to 2011 in children, adolescents, and young adults from Kolkata (India).

OBJECTIVES: The aim of the study was to investigate the intergenerational changes of upper and lower limb lengths as well as the values of the upper, lower limb, and intermembral indicators of children, adolescents, and young adults from Kolkata (India) between 1952 to 1966 and 2005 to 2011. METHODS: The analysis was based on the results of anthropometric measurements of 7488 Bengali children, adolescents, and young adults. They were included in three cross-sectional surveys, carried out in 1955 to 1966, 1982 to 1983 (only males), and 2005 to 2011. The upper and lower limb lengths were obtained and the upper and lower limb indicators, as well as an intermembral index, were calculated. The differences between the cohorts were assessed using two-way ANOVA. RESULTS: Positive, statistically significant, secular trends regarding the length of the lower and upper limbs as well as the value of the lower limb index were observed. Negative intergenerational changes were noted for the values of the upper limb indicator and intermembral index, suggesting that the secular increase of the length of the upper limbs was less pronounced than those of the body height and lower limbs length. CONCLUSIONS: The secular increase regarding the lower limbs length was associated with the socioeconomic progress of the country, but the length of the upper limbs was less sensitive for those factors. It is also important to mention that there is still very little information on those characteristics in general, which further proves the need for similar studies.

The relationship among the age at menarche, anthropometric characteristics, and socio-economic factors in Bengali girls from Kolkata, India.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of the study was to measure the causal effect of selected socio-economic factors and anthropometrical characteristics on the menarche occurrence. METHODS: The sample consisted of 2195 Bengali girls (aged 7-21) from middle-class families, from Kolkata city, India. The age at menarche was recorded from the retrospective data and status quo method. The causal effect of anthropometric and socio-economic variables on menarche occurrence was estimated by the nonparametrical analysis of survival probability (survival random forest). RESULTS: In the examined cohort menarche occurred, on average, at 11.8 years of age. The probability of menarche occurrence amplified with the increasing values of factors such as body mass index, height-for-age z-scores, number of family members, household rooms, and toilets, but decreased when expenditures increased. The relation maintained a similar pattern of causal effect with girls' age. CONCLUSIONS: A complex pattern of relationship among sexual development, physique, and socio-economic characteristics was defined. The tendency toward early menarche, along with the observed causal relationships indicate that the analyzed sample is nearing the characteristics and standards of living noted in other middle and even high-income countries in the world.

BMI and adiposity based approach to obesity: the need for ethnic specificity. A reply to Kapoor et al. (2019).

The ethnicity of the studied group is one of the key characteristics that should be taken into consideration when analysing the problem of overweight and obesity. It is especially crucial in populations of countries such as India, where the proportion of the fat to lean mass and general adiposity are significantly different from those observed among Europeans. This can cause a higher risk of various metabolic-related diseases to appear at relatively lower absolute adiposity. Therefore, there is a need for further research regarding the issues of body mass and composition in Indian populations, to obtain additional information as well as to develop ethnically specific cut-off points.

Anthropometric variations in different BMI and adiposity levels among children, adolescents and young adults in Kolkata, India.

The objective of the study was to analyse selected anthropometric features of children, adolescents and young adults from middle-class families in Kolkata, India, by BMI and adiposity categories. Standardized anthropometric measurements of 4194 individuals (1999 male and 2195 female) aged 7-21 were carried out between the years 2005 and 2011. The results were compared by BMI and adiposity categories. Statistical significance was assessed using two-way-ANOVA and linear regression analysis was performed. The study population could be differentiated in terms of BMI and adiposity categories for all examined anthropometric characteristics (p ≤ 0.001). After taking age into consideration, differences were observed for males in the case of body height and humerus breadth in BMI and adiposity categories, and for femur breadth in the case of adiposity categories. For females, differences were noted in body height measurements in BMI and adiposity categories, a sum of skinfold thicknesses in BMI categories, and upper-arm and calf circumferences in adiposity categories. The patterns of differences in the BMI categories were found to be similar to those in adiposity categories. The linear regression analysis results showed that there was a significant relationship between BMI and body fat ratio in the examined population. Underweight individuals, and those with low adiposity, were characterized by lower extremity circumferences and skeletal breadths. These features reached highest values in overweight/obese persons, characterized by high body fat. However, the differences observed between each BMI and adiposity category, in most cases, were only present in early childhood.

Sexual dimorphism of body proportions and composition among 16-19-year-olds from South Asia (India) and Central Europe (Poland).

The purpose of this study was to assess the sexual dimorphism of body proportions and body composition among 16-19-year-olds from South Asia (India) and Central Europe (Poland). The study group consisted of the results of anthropometric measurements of 2008 youths (16-19-year-olds). 1098 of them came from Kolkata (India) and 910 from Kraków (Poland). For each of the analyzed anthropometric characteristics, the index of sexual dimorphism was calculated, basing on mean and standard deviation values. The body height was one of the most dimorphic features, in both populations. Also, the dimorphism in body adiposity, upper and lower limb, as well as trunk adiposity, pelvi-acromial and frame indicators was similar in both populations. Limbs-to-trunk adiposity index and trunk-to-total adiposity ratio were more dimorphic among the South Asian population, while the muscle mass was notably more dimorphic in the Polish adolescents. Such differences in the values of the Mollison's index may have been associated with the discrepancies in overall body fat ratio, which is much greater in the South Asians. Additionally, it may be related to different models of sexual preferences and attractiveness perception in both, culturally significantly varying, populations.

Intergenerational changes in adiposity and fat distribution from 1982 to 2011 in male children and adolescents from Kolkata (India).

BACKGROUND: India, as a developing country, is subjected to numerous socioeconomic changes. They can significantly influence human development and be mirrored by the secular trends regarding the adiposity and body fat distribution. OBJECTIVES: The aim of the study was to examine the intergenerational changes of adiposity and body fat distribution in Bengali boys, between 1982 and 2011. METHODS: The study group consisted of 2064 Bengali boys, aged 7-16, from the middle-class families, examined in two cross-sectional surveys in 1982-83 and 2005-2011. Triceps, biceps, subscapular and suprailiac skinfolds were measured. Their sum and the mean percentage of every skinfold were calculated. The percentage of body fat (%BF) was assessed using Slaughter's equations. RESULTS: Positive secular trend, significant for most of the age groups, was observed for %BF and sum of skinfolds. It was also present for suprailiac and subscapular skinfolds. CONCLUSIONS: Adiposity has significantly changed over the past three decades. The results confirm that the measurements of skinfold thickness are a great tool to relatively easily and accurately assess body adiposity in countries such as India. Moreover, further analysis of these trends can help to identify possible negative changes as well as establish their causes in a particular population.

Changes in body size, shape and nutritional status of middle-class Bengali boys of Kolkata, India, 1982--2002.

Growth changes over time among school-aged boys in Kolkata, India, have been investigated using two surveys: 1982--1983 (n=816) and 1999--2002 (n=1187). The two surveys were implemented according to highly similar protocols which strongly adds to the reliability and accuracy of the results of the study. Age-specific average height, weight and BMI all increased during these two decades (by respectively, 3.2cm, 6.1kg and 2.1kg/m2), while relative sitting height and sitting height-subischial leg length ratio decreased for almost all ages between 7.0 and 16.0 years. Moreover, the prevalence of stunting and thinness declined (stunting from 11.2% to 4.9%, p<0.01, thinness from 50.5% to 22%, p<0.01), while the prevalence of overweight increased (from 4.7% to 17.2%, p<0.01). Through analysis of variance, the relationships between various socio-economic factors and anthropometric traits are analyzed. Factors strongly related with positive changes in anthropometric traits are maternal education and family expenditure.

No association between fat tissue and height in 5019 children and adolescents, measured between 1982 and in 2011 in Kolkata/India.

ABSTRACT: Body height has traditionally been looked upon as a mirror of the condition of society, short height being an indicator of poor nutritional status, poor education, and low social status and income. This view has recently been questioned. We aimed to quantify the effects of nutrition, education, sibship size, and household income, factors that are conventionally considered to be related to child growth, on body height of children and adolescents raised under urban Indian conditions. Sample and methods: We re-analyzed several anthropometric measurements and questionnaires with questions on sibship size, fathers' and mother's education, and monthly family expenditure, from two cross-sectional growth studies performed in Kolkata, India. The first Kolkata Growth Study (KG1) took place in 1982-1983, with data on 825 Bengali boys aged 7 to 16 years; and the second Kolkata Growth Study (KG2) between 1999 and 2011 with data of 1999 boys aged 7 to 21 years from Bengali Hindu families, and data of 2195 girls obtained between 2005 and 2011. Results: Indian children showed positive insignificant secular trends in height and a significant secular trend in weight and BMI between between 1982 and 2011. Yet, multiple regression analysis failed to detect an association between nutritional status (expressed in terms of skinfold thickness), monthly family expenditure and sibship size with body height of these children. The analysis only revealed an influence of parental education on female, but not on male height. Conclusion: We failed to detect influences of nutrition, sibship size, and monthly family expenditure on body height in a large sample of children and adolescents raised in Kolkata, India, between 1982 and 2011. We found a mild positive association between parental education and girls' height. The data question current concepts regarding the impact of nutrition, and household and economic factors on growth, but instead underscore the effect of parental education.

Long-term changes in body proportions since 1952 to 2011 in children and adolescents from Kolkata (India).

ABSTRACT: The aim of this study was to investigate the intergenerational changes of the selected body proportions of children and adolescents from Kolkata (India). The analysis was based on anthropometric measurements of 7488 Bengali children (4222 boys and 3266 girls), aged 7-19, from the middle-class families. The cohorts from 1952-66 and 1999-2011, as well as series of boys from 1982-83, were compared in terms of body height, subischial leg length, biacromial width, biiliac width, reciprocal ponderal index (RPI), skelic index, pelvi-acromial index, shoulder-height ratio, pelvis-height ratio. The significance of the differences was determined by two-way ANOVA. All features, in both sexes, significantly differed between the 1952-66 and 1999-2011 cohorts. A general positive secular trend was observed for subischial leg length, biacromial width, and biiliac width and skelic index. Negative overall intergenerational changes were noted in the pelvi-acromial index, biacromial and biiliac width to body height ratio and RPI. In boys, the 1982-83 and 1999-2011 cohorts differed significantly only in the RPI. Between the 1952-66 and 1982-83 series the differences in subischial leg length, biacromial width, biiliac width (in older boys) and pelvi-acromial index (some age groups) were significant. Observed diversification of body proportions most likely results from the improvement of developmental conditions related to the socio-economic progress of India. However, increasing stoutness, visible in the RPI values, especially associated with its fatness, raises the risk of many health problems and diseases, even at the young age.

External skeletal robusticity of children and adolescents - European references from birth to adulthood and international comparisons.

ABSTRACT: Background: In our modern world, the way of life in nutritional and activity behaviour has changed. As a consequence, parallel trends of an epidemic of overweight and a decline in external skeletal robusticity are observed in children and adolescents. Aim: We aim to develop reference centiles for external skeletal robusticity of European girls and boys aged 0 to 18 years using the Frame Index as an indicator and identify population specific age-related patterns. Methods: We analysed cross-sectional & longitudinal data on body height and elbow breadth of boys and girls from Europe (0-18 years, n = 41.679), India (7-18 years, n = 3.297) and South Africa (3-18 years, n = 4.346). As an indicator of external skeletal robusticity Frame Index after Frisancho (1990) was used. We developed centiles for boys and girls using the LMS-method and its extension. Results: Boys have greater external skeletal robusticity than girls. Whereas in girls Frame Index decreases continuously during growth, an increase of Frame Index from 12 to 16 years in European boys can be observed. Indian and South African boys are almost similar in Frame Index to European boys. In girls, the pattern is slightly different. Whereas South African girls are similar to European girls, Indian girls show a lesser external skeletal robusticity. Conclusion: Accurate references for external skeletal robusticity are needed to evaluate if skeletal development is adequate per age. They should be used to monitor effects of changes in way of life and physical activity levels in children and adolescents to avoid negative health outcomes like osteoporosis and arthrosis.

Familial resemblance in height and weight in an endogamous Hahisya caste population of rural West Bengal.

Intrafamilial resemblance and heritability of height and weight in an endogamous, agricultural caste population of rural West Bengal ("Mahisya") were estimated from data for 540 individuals, 110 parent pairs and 187 sons and 133 daughters (children as well as adults) from 110 nuclear families. Multiple regression with age and sex adjustments was used. A trend of greater mother-child than father-child correlation was observed, but was not significant. Sibling correlations indicated no evidence of sex linkage. Heritability for height (h2 = 0.603) was greater than that for weight (h2 = .405). Am. J. Hum. Biol. 9:7-9 © 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc.