Vascular risk factors for optical coherence tomography-detected macular cysts: The Maastricht Study.

PURPOSE: To investigate whether higher blood pressure and greater arterial stiffness are associated with the presence of macular cysts and whether this association is already present in the absence of micro-aneurysms in individuals with and without type 2 diabetes. METHODS: Using spectral domain optical coherence tomography (OCT), we performed a macular volume scan in 2647 individuals (mean age 60 ± 8 years, 50% men, 27% type 2 diabetes). The association between macular cysts and 24-hour systolic and diastolic blood pressure, pulse pressure, mean arterial blood pressure, carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity and carotid distensibility was assessed by use of logistic regression. RESULTS: Twenty-four hours systolic blood pressure was associated with the presence of macular cysts [OR = 1.03 (95% CI 1.00-1.05) per 1 mmHg, p = 0.03]. 24 hr pulse pressure [OR = 1.61 (95% CI 1.11-2.34) per 10 mmHg, p = 0.01] and carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity [OR = 1.16 (95% CI 1.02-1.32) per 1 m/s, p = 0.02] were associated with macular cysts, while carotid distensibility was not [OR = 1.03 (95% CI 0.96-1.11) per 1.0*10-3 /kPa, p = 0.45]. Associations were similar in individuals with and without type 2 diabetes and were already present in the absence of micro-aneurysms. CONCLUSION: Twenty-four hours systolic blood pressure, 24 hr pulse pressure and carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity are associated with the presence of OCT-detected macular cysts in individuals with and without type 2 diabetes, even in the absence of micro-aneurysms. Therefore, blood pressure and aortic stiffness are potential factors contributing to macular cysts.

Reduced corneal nerve fibre length in prediabetes and type 2 diabetes: The Maastricht Study.

PURPOSE: In individuals with diabetes, injury to the corneal nerve fibres predisposes to delayed corneal epithelial healing, reduced corneal sensitivity and corneal erosion. We investigated to what extent a reduction in corneal nerve fibre length (CNFL) is present in individuals with prediabetes or type 2 diabetes (DM2) compared with individuals with normal glucose metabolism (NGM). METHODS: Using composite images acquired by corneal confocal microscopy, we assessed total CNFL per mm2 in the subbasal nerve plexus of the cornea in 134 participants (mean age 59 ± 8 years, 49% men, 87 NGM, 20 prediabetes, 27 DM2). Multivariable linear regression was used to assess the association between CNFL and glucose metabolism status, adjusted for age and sex. RESULTS: In individuals with type 2 diabetes, the mean CNFL was significantly reduced [ß = -1.86 mm/mm2 (95% CI -3.64 to -0.08), p = 0.04], as compared with individuals with normal glucose metabolism after adjustment for age and sex. Part of the reduction was present in individuals with prediabetes [ß = -0.96 mm/mm2 (95% CI -2.91 to 0.99), p = 0.34], with a linear trend of corneal nerve fibre reduction with severity of glucose metabolism status (p trend = 0.04). CONCLUSIONS: A significant reduction in CNFL was found in individuals with DM2 compared with individuals with NGM. A trend of reduction in CNFL was observed between individuals with NGM and prediabetes. The reduction in corneal nerve fibre length could contribute to a delayed corneal healing and an increased risk for corneal complications after surgery.

Prevalence of optical coherence tomography detected vitreomacular interface disorders: The Maastricht Study.

PURPOSE: To calculate the prevalence of all vitreomacular interface (VMI) disorders and stratify according to age, sex and (pre)diabetes status. METHODS: The presence of VMI disorders was assessed in 2660 participants aged between 40 and 75 years from The Maastricht Study who had a gradable macular spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT) volume scan in at least one eye [mean 59.7 ± 8.2 years, 50.2% men, 1531 normal glucose metabolism (NGM), 401 prediabetes, 728 type 2 diabetes (DM2, oversampled)]. A stratified and multivariable logistic regression analysis was used. RESULTS: The prevalence of the different VMI disorders for individuals with NGM, prediabetes and DM2 was, respectively, 5.7%, 6% and 6.7% for epiretinal membranes; 6%, 9.6% and 6.8% for vitreomacular traction; 1.1%, 0.7% and 0.3% for lamellar macular holes; 0.1%, 0% and 0% for pseudoholes; 1.1%, 1.9% and 5.5% for macular cysts. None of the participants was diagnosed with a macular hole. The prevalence of epiretinal membranes, vitreomacular traction and macular cysts was higher with age (p < 0.001). Vitreomacular traction and lamellar macular holes were more frequent in women (p < 0.01). DM2 is positively associated [OR = 3.9 (95% CI 2.11-7.22, p < 0.001)] with macular cysts and negatively associated with lamellar macular holes [OR = 0.2 (95% CI 0.04-0.9, p = 0.036)] after adjustment for age and sex. The calculated prevalence of VMI disorders was 15.9%. CONCLUSIONS: The calculated prevalence of VMI disorders in individuals aged between 40 and 75 years is 15.9%. The prevalence depends on age, sex and glucose metabolism status for several types of VMI disorders.

Macular thinning in prediabetes or type 2 diabetes without diabetic retinopathy: the Maastricht Study.

PURPOSE: To assess macular thinning in individuals with prediabetes or type 2 diabetes without diabetic retinopathy (DM2 w/o DR) compared with individuals with normal glucose metabolism (NGM). METHODS: Using spectral domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT), we measured macular thickness in six subfields as defined by the Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study (ETDRS) in 1838 participants from The Maastricht Study, a population-based cohort study (mean age 59 ± 8 years, 49% men, 1087 NGM, 279 prediabetes, 472 DM2 w/o DR). Multivariable linear regression was used to assess the association between macular thickness and glucose metabolism status. RESULTS: After adjustment for age, sex and spherical equivalent, individuals with prediabetes showed a significant decrease in pericentral superior macular thickness [ß = -2.14 µm (95% confidence interval (CI): -4.24 to -0.03), p < 0.05] compared with individuals with NGM. In individuals with DM2 w/o DR, the fovea [ß = -4.05 µm (95% CI: -6.30 to -1.79), p < 0.001] and the four pericentral quadrants (range: ß = -4.64 to -5.29 µm, p < 0.001) were significantly thinner compared with individuals with NGM. There was a significant linear trend of macular thinning with severity of glucose metabolism status in five subfields (p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Macular thickness is reduced in prediabetes and a greater reduction occurs in DM2, even before DR is clinically present. About half of the thinning observed in DM2 w/o DR was already found in prediabetes. Generalized thinning of the macula could be related to thinning of the temporal side of the optic nerve head through the connecting papillo-macular bundle.

New ophthalmologic imaging techniques for detection and monitoring of neurodegenerative changes in diabetes: a systematic review.

Optical coherence tomography (OCT) of the retina and around the optic nerve head and corneal confocal microscopy (CCM) are non-invasive and repeatable techniques that can quantify ocular neurodegenerative changes in individuals with diabetes. We systematically reviewed studies of ocular neurodegenerative changes in adults with type 1 or type 2 diabetes and noted changes in the retina, the optic nerve head, and the cornea. Of the 30 studies that met our inclusion criteria, 14 used OCT and 16 used CCM to assess ocular neurodegenerative changes. Even in the absence of diabetic retinopathy, several layers in the retina and the mean retinal nerve fibre layer around the optic nerve head were significantly thinner (-5·36 µm [95% CI -7·13 to -3·58]) in individuals with type 2 diabetes compared with individuals without diabetes. In individuals with type 1 diabetes without retinopathy none of the intraretinal layer thicknesses were significantly reduced compared with individuals without diabetes. In the absence of diabetic polyneuropathy, individuals with type 2 diabetes had a lower nerve density (nerve branch density: -1·10/mm(2) [95% CI -4·22 to 2·02]), nerve fibre density: -5·80/mm(2) [-8·06 to -3·54], and nerve fibre length: -4·00 mm/mm(2) [-5·93 to -2·07]) in the subbasal nerve plexus of the cornea than individuals without diabetes. Individuals with type 1 diabetes without polyneuropathy also had a lower nerve density (nerve branch density: -7·74/mm(2) [95% CI -14·13 to -1·34], nerve fibre density: -2·68/mm(2) [-5·56 to 0·20]), and nerve fibre length: -2·58 mm/mm(2) [-3·94 to -1·21]). Ocular neurodegenerative changes are more evident when diabetic retinopathy or polyneuropathy is present. OCT and CCM are potentially useful, in addition to conventional clinical methods, to assess diabetic neurodegenerative changes. Additional research is needed to determine their incremental benefit and to standardise procedures before the application of OCT and CCM in daily practice.

Success rate of miniplate anchorage for bone anchored maxillary protraction.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the success rate of Bollard miniplate anchorage for bone anchored maxillary protraction (BAMP). MATERIALS AND METHODS: Twenty-five consecutive patients (mean age, 12.0 ± 1.2 years; range, 8.7-14.8 years) with maxillary hypoplasia without congenital or acquired deformation were included in this study. A total of 100 Bollard modified miniplates were placed by the same surgeon. Ninety-nine miniplates were inserted under general anesthesia, and one was placed under local anesthesia because of initially soft bone conditions. Loading of the miniplates with 150 g elastics was initiated at 17.5 ± 6.9 days (range, 11-38 days) after surgery. Mean follow-up was provided at 20.8 ± 11.1 months (range, 6.5-46.2 months). RESULTS: The overall success rate of miniplate anchorage in terms of stability was 97%. During orthodontic loading, five miniplates showed signs of mobility. After interruption of loading over 2 months, two miniplates became stable again. However, a total of three miniplates needed to be removed and were successfully replaced under local anesthesia after a mean healing period of 3 months. CONCLUSION: Skeletal anchorage by means of Bollard modified miniplates is effective for BAMP. Success depends on proper presurgical patient counseling, minimal invasive surgery, good postsurgical instructions, and orthodontic follow-up.