Hippocampal unit activity during classical aversive and appetitive conditioning.

Rats were trained with a tone being followed by either food or electric shock, on alternate days. Unit activity during application of the conditioned stimulus was recorded from the dorsal hippocampus. The results indicate differentiation of the hippocampal system. Dentate units respond by augmentation to a conditioned stimulus which leads to food and by inhibition to the same stimulus when it precedes electric shock. The hippocampus proper responds by augmentation in both situations. The intensity of the hippocampal response to the conditioned stimulus on the first day of training is higher if the unconditioned stimulus is food than if it is electric shock. These data cast light on the functions of the dorsal dentate-hippocampal connections and the hippocampus proper during aversive and appetitive conditioning.

Nimodipine facilitates associative learning in aging rabbits.

Nimodipine is one of several dihydropyridines that block calcium channels. Originally administered to improve cerebral blood flow in elderly patients with chronic cerebrovascular disorders, nimodipine was noted to facilitate learning. These observations led to the present investigation of the effects of nimodipine on associative learning in aging rabbits. Nimodipine accelerated acquisition of conditioned eye-blink in both young and aging rabbits without altering the amplitude of responses to the conditioned or unconditioned stimuli or causing nonspecific responding. Thus, nimodipine may be a candidate for an effective treatment for age-related learning deficits.

Connections of the caudal anterior cingulate cortex in rabbit: neural circuitry participating in the acquisition of trace eyeblink conditioning.

The caudal anterior cingulate cortex (cAC) is an essential component of the circuitry involved in acquisition of forebrain-dependent trace eyeblink conditioning. Lesions of the cAC prevent trace eyeblink conditioning [Weible AP, McEchron MD, Disterhoft JF (2000) Cortical involvement in acquisition and extinction of trace eyeblink conditioning. Behav Neurosci 114(6):1058-1067]. The patterns of activation of cAC neurons recorded in vivo suggest an attentional role for this structure early in training [Weible AP, Weiss C, Disterhoft JF (2003) Activity profiles of single neurons in caudal anterior cingulate cortex during trace eyeblink conditioning in the rabbit. J Neurophysiol 90(2):599-612]. The goal of the present study was to identify connections of the portion of the rabbit cAC previously demonstrated to be involved in trace eyeblink conditioning, using the neuronal tract tracer wheat germ agglutinin conjugated to horseradish peroxidase, to better understand how the cAC contributes to the process of associative learning. Reciprocal connections with the claustrum provide a route for the transfer of sensory information between the cAC and neocortical and allocortical regions also involved in learning. Connections with components of the basal forebrain cholinergic system are described, with relevance to the proposed attentional role of the cAC. Reciprocal and unidirectional connections were in evidence in multiple thalamic regions, including the medial dorsal nucleus, which have been implicated in a variety of conditioning paradigms. Anterograde connections with the caudate and lateral pontine nuclei provide access to forebrain motor and brainstem sensory circuitry, respectively. The relevance of these connections to acquisition of the trace conditioned reflex is discussed.

Galantamine increases excitability of CA1 hippocampal pyramidal neurons.

Galantamine is a third generation cholinesterase inhibitor and an allosteric potentiating ligand of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. It enhances learning in aging rabbits and alleviates cognitive deficits observed in patients with Alzheimer's disease. We examined galantamine's effect on CA1 neurons from hippocampal slices of young and aging rabbits using current-clamp, intracellular recording techniques. Galantamine (10-200 microM) dose-dependently reduced the postburst afterhyperpolarization and the spike-frequency accommodation of CA1 neurons from both young and aging animals. These reductions were partially, but significantly, reversed by the addition of the muscarinic receptor antagonist, atropine (1 microM), to the perfusate. In contrast, the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist, alpha-bungarotoxin (10 nM), had no effect; i.e. alpha-bungarotoxin did not reverse the afterhyperpolarization and accommodation reductions. The allosteric potentiating ligand effect was examined by stimulating the Schaffer collateral and measuring the excitatory postsynaptic potentials for 30 min during bath application of galantamine. Galantamine (200 microM) significantly enhanced the excitatory postsynaptic potential amplitude and area over time. These effects were blocked by 10 nM alpha-bungarotoxin, supporting a role for galantamine as an allosteric potentiating ligand. We did not observe a facilitation of the excitatory postsynaptic potentials with 1 microM galantamine. However, when the excitatory postsynaptic potential was pharmacologically isolated by adding 10 microM gabazine (GABA(A) receptor antagonist) to the perfusate, 1 microM galantamine potentiated the subthreshold excitatory postsynaptic potentials into action potentials. We propose that the learning enhancement observed in aging animals and the alleviation of cognitive deficits associated with Alzheimer's disease after galantamine treatment may in part be due to the enhanced function of both nicotinic and muscarinic excitatory transmission on hippocampal pyramidal neurons.

Comparisons of dorsal and ventral hippocampus cornu ammonis region 1 pyramidal neuron activity during trace eye-blink conditioning in the rabbit.

Previous studies demonstrating a critical role of the hippocampus during trace eye-blink conditioning have focused primarily upon the dorsal portion of the structure. However, evidence suggests that a functional differentiation exists along the septotemporal axis of the hippocampus. In the present study, the activity of 2588 single cornu ammonis region 1 pyramidal neurons of the dorsal hippocampus and ventral hippocampus were recorded during trace and pseudo-eye-blink conditioning of the rabbit. Learning-related increases in dorsal hippocampus neuron firing rates were observed immediately prior to behavioral criterion, and increased over the course of training. Activation of dorsal hippocampus neurons during trace conditioning was also greater than that of ventral hippocampus neurons, including during the trace interval, in well-trained animals. An unexpected difference in the patterns of learning-related activity between hemispheres was also observed. Neurons of the dorsal hippocampus ipsilateral and contralateral to the trained eye, exhibiting significant increases in firing rate [rate increasing neurons], demonstrated the greatest magnitude of activation early and late in training, respectively. Rate increasing neurons of the dorsal hippocampus also exhibited a greater diversity of response profiles, with 69% of dorsal hippocampus rate increasing neurons exhibiting significant increases in firing rate during the conditioned stimulus and/or trace intervals, compared with only 8% of ventral hippocampus rate increasing neurons (the remainder of which were significantly responsive during only the unconditioned stimulus and/or post-unconditioned stimulus intervals). Only modest learning-related activation of ventral hippocampus neurons was observed, reflected as an increase in conditioning stimulus-elicited rate increasing neuron response magnitudes over the course of training. No differences in firing rate between dorsal hippocampus and ventral hippocampus neurons during a 1-day pre-training habituation session were observed. Thus, dorsal hippocampus activation is more robust, suggesting a more substantial role for these neurons in the processing of temporal information during trace eye-blink conditioning.

Associative learning elicits the formation of multiple-synapse boutons.

The formation of new synapses has been suggested to underlie learning and memory. However, previous work from this laboratory has demonstrated that hippocampus-dependent associative learning does not induce a net gain in the total number of hippocampal synapses and, hence, a net synaptogenesis. The aim of the present work was to determine whether associative learning involves a specific synaptogenesis confined to the formation of multiple-synapse boutons (MSBs) that synapse with more than one dendritic spine. We used the behavioral paradigm of trace eyeblink conditioning, which is a hippocampus-dependent form of associative learning. Conditioned rabbits were given daily 80-trial sessions to a criterion of 80% conditioned responses in a session. During each trial, the conditioned stimulus (tone) and the unconditioned stimulus (corneal airpuff) were presented with an intervening trace interval of 500 msec. Brain tissue was taken for morphological analyses 24 hr after the last session. Unbiased stereological methods were used for obtaining estimates of the total number of MSBs in the stratum radiatum of hippocampal subfield CA1. The results showed that the total number of MSBs was significantly increased in conditioned rabbits as compared with pseudoconditioned or unstimulated controls. This conditioning-induced change, which occurs without a net synaptogenesis, reflects a specific synaptogenesis resulting in MSB formation. Models of the latter process are proposed. The models postulate that it requires spine motility and may involve the relocation of existing spines from nonactivated boutons or the outgrowth of newly formed spines for specific synaptogenesis with single-synapse boutons activated by the conditioning stimulation.

The M1 muscarinic agonist CI-1017 facilitates trace eyeblink conditioning in aging rabbits and increases the excitability of CA1 pyramidal neurons.

The M1 muscarinic agonist CI-1017 was administered intravenously to aging rabbits on a daily basis before and during hippocampally dependent trace eyeblink conditioning sessions. Circulating levels of CI-1017 were significantly related to the drug dose. The drug was found to significantly increase the rate and amount of learning in a dose-dependent manner with no significant effects on the amplitude, area, or latency of conditioned responses. There was no evidence of pseudoconditioning at the highest drug concentration, and the minimally effective dose produced only mild and temporary hypersalivation as a side effect. CI-1017 (10 microM) was also found to increase the excitability of CA1 pyramidal neurons recorded from hippocampal slices from young and aging naive rabbits as measured by changes in spike-frequency adaptation and the postburst afterhyperpolarization. These biophysical changes were reversed with either atropine (1 microM) or pirenzepine (1 microM). These results suggest that M1 agonists ameliorate age-related learning and memory impairments at least in part by reducing the afterhyperpolarization and spike-frequency adaptation of hippocampal pyramidal neurons and that M1 agonists may be an effective therapy for reducing the cognitive deficits that accompany normal aging and/or Alzheimer's disease.

The long-lasting antidepressant effects of rapastinel (GLYX-13) are associated with a metaplasticity process in the medial prefrontal cortex and hippocampus.

Rapastinel (GLYX-13) is an N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) modulator that has characteristics of a glycine site partial agonist. Rapastinel is a robust cognitive enhancer and facilitates hippocampal long-term potentiation (LTP) of synaptic transmission in slices. In human clinical trials, rapastinel has been shown to produce marked antidepressant properties that last for at least one week following a single dose. The long-lasting antidepressant effect of a single dose of rapastinel (3mg/kg IV) was assessed in rats using the Porsolt, open field and ultrasonic vocalization assays. Cognitive enhancement was examined using the Morris water maze, positive emotional learning, and contextual fear extinction tests. LTP was assessed in hippocampal slices. Dendritic spine morphology was measured in the dentate gyrus and the medial prefrontal cortex. Significant antidepressant-like or cognitive enhancing effects were observed that lasted for at least one week in each model. Rapastinel facilitated LTP 1day-2weeks but not 4weeks post-dosing. Biweekly dosing with rapastinel sustained this effect for at least 8weeks. A single dose of rapastinel increased the proportion of whole-cell NMDAR current contributed by NR2B-containing NMDARs in the hippocampus 1week post-dosing, that returned to baseline by 4weeks post-dosing. The NMDAR antagonist 3-(2-carboxypiperazin-4-yl)propyl-1-phosphonic acid (CPP) blocked the antidepressant-like effect of rapastinel 1week post dosing. A single injection of rapastinel also increased mature spine density in both brain regions 24h post-dosing. These data demonstrate that rapastinel produces its long-lasting antidepressant effects via triggering NMDAR-dependent processes that lead to increased sensitivity to LTP that persist for up to two weeks. These data also suggest that these processes led to the alterations in dendritic spine morphologies associated with the maintenance of long-term changes in synaptic plasticity associated with learning and memory.

Trace eyeblink conditioning in rabbits demonstrates heterogeneity of learning ability both between and within age groups.

Rabbits 2 to 41 months of age were conditioned in the 500 ms trace eyeblink paradigm to cross-sectionally define the age of onset and the severity of age-associated impairments in acquisition of this relatively difficult hippocampally dependent task. Using a strict behavioral criterion of 80% conditioned responses (CRs), age-associated learning impairments were significant by 24 months of age. Among rabbits that successfully reached this criterion, impairments in acquisition plateaued at 30 months of age. However, the proportion of severely impaired rabbits (that failed to reach the 80% criterion) continued to increase age dependently. Using an easier criterion of 8 out of 10 CRs, behavioral impairments were not detected until 30 months of age, and cases of severe impairment (failure to reach criterion) were rare. Additional controls demonstrated that the deficits observed were not attributable to nonassociative changes that might have artifactually skewed the data. Even severely impaired 36-month-old rabbits were able to reach a criterion of 80% CRs when switched from a trace to a delay conditioning task that is not hippocampally dependent. The results are discussed in terms of operationally defining and predicting behavioral effects of aging, hypothetical neural mechanisms, and efficient experimental design.

Aging, spatial learning, and total synapse number in the rat CA1 stratum radiatum.

The aim of this study was to determine whether spatial learning deficits in aged rats are associated with a loss of hippocampal synapses. The Morris water maze task was used to assess the spatial learning capacity of young and aged rats and to attribute aged animals to learning-impaired and learning-unimpaired groups. The number of axospinous synapses in the entire volume of the CA1 stratum radiatum was estimated with unbiased stereological techniques. The results show that the total number of all axospinous synapses and of their perforated and nonperforated subtypes remains constant in the CA1 stratum radiatum of aged learning-impaired rats as compared to aged learning-unimpaired rats and to young adults. Thus, neither age-related deficits in spatial learning nor advanced chronological age are associated with a loss of axospinous synapses from the rat CA1 stratum radiatum.

Dietary nimodipine improves associative learning in aging rabbits.

The effects of oral nimodipine on the acquisition of the conditioned eye-blink response in aging rabbits were examined. Three groups of rabbits were compared: young and aging controls fed NIH-09 rabbit chow and aging rabbits fed rabbit chow containing 860 ppm nimodipine. Aging control rabbits are dramatically impaired in the acquisition of this task compared to young controls. Aging rabbits receiving nimodipine reached a behavioral criterion of 4 conditioned responses in any block of 5 trials significantly faster than aging controls. Young controls reached this criterion faster than the aging controls. There were no significant group effects on either the amplitude or the latency of the conditioned response. This study extends earlier reports that IV nimodipine enhances the associative learning abilities of aging rabbits and examined the route of administration most likely to be used clinically in aging humans.

Age-related effects on eyeblink conditioning in the F344 x BN F1 hybrid rat.

Young, middle-aged, old, and senescent Fischer 344 x Brown Norway F1 hybrid rats were trained in either the trace or delay eyeblink conditioning task in order to investigate how aging affects associative learning and memory over the life span. Senescent rats at 34-35 months showed severe impairments in acquisition of the trace task with a 250 msec trace interval, which is hippocampally-dependent, and were mildly impaired in the simple delay eyeblink conditioning task. Middle aged animals, varying in age from 18-24 months, acquired the trace and delay eyeblink paradigms as well as young rats (6 months). However, at 28-29 months, approximately 50% of the old animals showed impairments in the trace 250 msec eyeblink task. Our results show that trace eyeblink conditioning is an age-sensitive task useful for studying the neural substrates underlying associative learning and memory in rats, as has been previously shown in humans and rabbits.

Age-related loss of calcium binding proteins in rabbit hippocampus.

Using immunocytochemistry hippocampal levels of the calcium binding proteins calbindin 28K (CB) and parvalbumin (PV) was studied in young (1 month) to very old (60 month) Albino rabbits. Young (3 month) and senescent (30 month) Wistar rats were also examined to compare the distribution and age dependency of PV and CB in both species. The distribution of PV-ir is similar in the rabbit and rat hippocampus. Aging in both species yielded a small loss of PV-ir in axon terminals. The presence of CB-ir interneurons throughout the hippocampus, and the heavy investment of the dentate gyrus (DG) granular cells with CB-ir was also similar in both species. In rabbits, the number of CB-ir interneurons in the CA1, as well as the density of CB-ir in the DG decreased in the first year of life, and did not change between 12-48 months of age. A secondary reduction in the density of CB-ir in the DG was observed at ages beyond 48 months. A similar loss of CB-ir in the DG occurred in the rat. In the CA1, however, the density of CB-ir was similar in young and aged rats. Another remarkable finding was the total absence of CB-ir in CA1 pyramidal neurons of rabbits at any age. Thus, the distribution and age dependency of PV-ir in the hippocampus is similar in both species. The decline of CB-ir in the DG with advancing age is very prominent and may be related to an altered calcium homeostasis in these cells. However, the absence of CB-ir in the CA1 of rabbits makes a causal role for CB in the functional decline of CA1 pyramidal cells during aging unlikely.

Neuronal morphology of the rabbit cochlear nucleus.

The cytoarchitecture of the cochlear nucleus in young adult albino rabbits (Cuniculus oryctolagus) has been examined in Nissl- and Golgi-impregnated material to compare rabbit cochlear nucleus with other mammalian species. Cochlear nucleus was subdivided into anteroventral (AVCN), posteroventral (PVCN), and dorsal (DCN) regions, as in other mammals. AVCN was characterized by bushy cells and stellate cells. The "bushy" dendritic trees of adjacent bushy cells often overlapped. PVCN was characterized by octopus, elongate, and stellate cells. The dendritic trees of adjacent octopus cells extended in a parallel array across the auditory nerve fibers. DCN had molecular, fusiform and polymorphic layers. The fusiform cell layer was especially prominent, with the fusiform cells appearing visually to be the organizing elements in DCN. The large cells in DCN were the fusiform and giant neurons; the medium cells were the stellate and elongate neurons; the small cells were the cartwheel, small stellate, and granule cells. The cochlear nucleus of rabbit is essentially similar in cytoarchitectural organization to other mammalian species which have been studied. The detailed morphology of the various cell types seen in Golgi preparations is quite similar to that of cat (Brawer et al., '74), although some differences do exist.

Remodeling of hippocampal synapses after hippocampus-dependent associative learning.

The aim of this study was to determine whether hippocampus-dependent associative learning involves changes in the number and/or structure of hippocampal synapses. A behavioral paradigm of trace eyeblink conditioning was used. Young adult rabbits were given daily 80 trial sessions to a criterion of 80% conditioned responses in a session. During each trial, the conditioned (tone) and unconditioned (corneal airpuff) stimuli were presented with a stimulus-free or trace interval of 500 msec. Control rabbits were pseudoconditioned by equal numbers of random presentations of the same stimuli. Brain tissue was taken for morphological analyses 24 hours after the last session. Synapses were examined in the stratum radiatum of hippocampal subfield CA1. Unbiased stereological methods were used to obtain estimates of the total number of synapses in this layer as well as the area of the postsynaptic density. The data showed that the total numbers of all synaptic contacts and various morphological subtypes of synapses did not change in conditioned animals. The area of the postsynaptic density, however, was significantly increased after conditioning in axospinous nonperforated synapses. This structural alteration may reflect an addition of signal transduction proteins (such as receptors and ion channels) and the transformation of postsynaptically silent synapses into functional ones. The findings of the present study indicate that cellular mechanisms of hippocampus-dependent associative learning include the remodeling of existing hippocampal synapses. Further studies examining various time points along the learning curve are necessary to clarify the issue of whether these mechanisms also involve the formation of additional synaptic contacts.

Age-dependent changes in the immunoreactivity for neurofilaments in rabbit hippocampus.

The distribution of the three subunits of neurofilaments was examined in the hippocampus of young adult rabbits (three months of age), employing a panel of six monoclonal antibodies. Thereafter, age-dependent and subunit-selective changes in neurofilament immunoreactivity in the ageing rabbit hippocampus were studied, using animals of one, three, six, 12, 24, 30, 36, 48, and 60 months. Principal cells, interneurons, axons, and various fibre systems were immunoreactive for all three subunits, although the localization and staining intensity of neurofilament immunoreactivity depended on the antibody used. Small cells immunopositive for the low subunit of neurofilament (presumably glial cells) were found abundantly in the hippocampal formation at one month, and (occasionally) at 30-36 months. Young rabbits (one to three months of age) had high numbers of interneurons stained for the high subunit of neurofilament in the stratum oriens/pyramidale. The number declined and plateaued to approximately 78% at six to 30 months, and further declined and plateaued to approximately 56% at 36-60 months. The first decline may reflect a process of maturation, while the latter decline most likely relates to ageing. Ageing pyramidal cells in 48-60 months animals revealed a slight increase for the low subunit of neurofilament, but no changes for the other subunits. Transient changes in neurofilament immunoreactivity were a striking observation in dentate gyrus granule cells during ageing. The staining intensity for the low subunit of neurofilament decreased gradually from one to 24-30 months until it was no longer detectable in these cells. The immunoreactivity then reappeared, most notably in granule cells lining the hilus, at the age of 36-48 months. By 60 months all granule cells were nearly immunonegative for this subunit. Axonal aberrations, immunoreactive for all three subunits, were found throughout the hippocampal formation. These aberrations first appeared in 24-month-old animals and increased in number and maximal size in older rabbits. The alterations in neurofilament immunoreactivity in the ageing hippocampus correlated with age-associated learning disabilities in the acquisition of a hippocampally-dependent learning task. The potential relevance of changes in the cytoskeletal profile of hippocampal neurons to age-associated learning and memory disabilities is discussed.

Age- and dose-dependent facilitation of associative eyeblink conditioning by D-cycloserine in rabbits.

Normal aging selectively impairs some forms of learning. For example, aging rabbits require more than twice as many trials to acquire 500-ms trace eyeblink conditioning than do young rabbits. N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonists also impair trace conditioning. The effects of daily D-cycloserine (DCS; a partial agonist of the NMDA receptor-glycine site) treatment were tested on trace conditioning of young or aging rabbits using a conservative quantitative approach. DCS dose dependently improved acquisition, maximally reducing trials to criterion by approximately 50%. Dose-response curves were right-shifted by aging (twice the dose was required to achieve the same enhancement compared with controls). DCS did not affect nonassociative performance but sharpened the conditioned stimulus tone intensity discrimination. DCS thus can functionally modulate NMDA receptors in normal aging, enhance associative learning at all ages, and reduce or reverse age-dependent learning deficits.

Temporal discrimination learning in severe amnesic patients reveals an alteration in the timing of eyeblink conditioned responses.

This study investigated whether the hippocampal system plays a modulatory role in the timing of conditioned responses (CRs) in eyeblink classical conditioning. Seven bitemporal amnesic patients and 7 controls were randomly presented 2 tone conditioned stimuli (CSs) that were individually paired with two different interstimulus intervals (ISIs) in a delay conditioning task. It was found that amnesic patients' CRs occurred significantly earlier than control participants' CRs at the longer ISI. Amnesic patients also produced significantly more nonadaptive CRs than did control participants, their level of acquisition was less than that of control participants after equating for ISI, and they did not show extinction with the longer ISI. These data suggest a role of the hippocampal system in controlling the precise timing of conditioned eyeblink responses and in acquiring and extinguishing responses within the context of a temporal discrimination task.

Hippocampal lesions impair memory of short-delay conditioned eye blink in rabbits.

Involvement of hippocampus in short-delay eye blink conditioning was reexamined during conditioned response (CR) consolidation. Rabbits received bilateral hippocampectomy, removal of overlying neocortex, or sham lesions and were trained with tone/puff pairings to early acquisition (consolidation) or well trained (overtraining); retention was tested. Two effects were observed: 1) Rabbits with hippocampal lesions showed less retention in the consolidation experiment than controls. Previous studies may not have found this because initial training was more complete. Overtrained hippocampal rabbits showed more retention, which agrees with this suggestion. 2) Hippocampectomized rabbits showed larger CR amplitudes in the overtraining experiment. The complementary roles of hippocampus in the consolidation process during early learning and in modulating the expression of the amplitude/time course of behavioral conditioned responses after associations are well learned are discussed.

Eyeblink conditioning in the rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) with stimulation of the mystacial vibrissae as a conditioned stimulus.

Eyeblink conditioning is a well-understood paradigm for the study of learning and memory and has been successfully employed with the use of auditory and visual conditioned stimuli (CSs). In this study, vibrotactile stimulation of the mystacial vibrissae was examined as an alternative CS in the rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus). The technique is described and acquisition of eyeblink conditioning (EBC) with stimulation of a single row of vibrissae in a delay paradigm is reported. Extinction of EBC with presentation of the CS alone is demonstrated, as well as reacquisition with stimulation of a single whisker. Finally, control experiments ensure that the CS has no auditory components. Ipsilateral presentation of the CS and airpuff is a more effective combination for training than contralateral presentations. Vibrotactile stimulation of the vibrissae as a CS will enable further examination of the neural correlates of learning in a well-characterized sensory system.