Análisis de costoefectividad de la oximetría de pulso como prueba de detección de las cardiopatías congénitas críticas en México.

OBJETIVO: Realizar un análisis de costoefectividad de la oximetría de pulso como prueba de detección neonatal de las cardiopatías congénitas críticas (CCC) en México. Material y métodos. Se realizó un estudio de evaluación económica desde la perspectiva de los proveedores de servicios de salud. A través de un árbol de decisiones se comparó la examinación física versus la examinación física junto con la prueba de oxi-metría de pulso (POP). RESULTADOS: Por cada 10 000 recién nacidos, la alternativa con la POP detectó 32 casos adicionales de CCC, con una razón de costoefectividad incremental de 1 219 USD y una probabilidad de costoefectividad mayor a 90% con una disposición a pagar de 25 000 USD por cada detección temprana. Conclusión. La costoefectividad de la POP, como tamiz neonatal cardiaco, es mayor en México que en países de altos ingresos, y representa una inversión costoefectiva para ganar años de vida en la población infantil de México.

Strategies to improve the medical device life cycle in Mexico.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze the role of stakeholders to three alternative strategies to improve processes and practices regarding the regulation, assessment, and management of orthopaedic medical devices in Mexico. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study was based on document analysis and 17 structured interviews with multiple key actors within the Mexican health system to inform a stakeholder analysis aiming at assessing the political feasibility of these strategies. RESULTS: Central level government agencies, those with a relation to quality of care, were identified as most relevant stakeholders to influence the adaption and application of the strategies. Major barriers identified are financial and human resources, and organisational culture towards reform. CONCLUSIONS: Discussed strategies are political feasible. However, solving identified barriers is crucial to achieve changes directed to improve outputs and outcomes of medical device life cycle and positively influence the quality of health care and the health system's performance.

ATTITUDES OF ORTHOPEDIC SPECIALISTS TOWARD EFFECTS OF MEDICAL DEVICE PURCHASING.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to assess viewpoints of end-users concerning the purchasing process of high-risk medical devices and to discuss the relevance of health technology assessments (HTAs) at the hospital level and other potential areas for improvement of purchasing processes. METHODS: We used a cross-sectional study and assessed the attitudes and thoughts of orthopedic specialists. The study took place between June and October 2015 in Mexico. RESULTS: We collected data from 187 orthopedic surgeons. Involvement of orthopedic specialists in purchasing was reported by 86 percent. However, clinical practice was perceived as negatively influenced by purchasing outcomes by 92 percent. The problems were described as: material failure; effectiveness of medical devices; obsolete medical device technology; incomplete provision of implant / instrument sets; delayed provision of implants and instruments. CONCLUSIONS: To prevent sub-standard outcomes of purchasing decisions, this study and the current literature suggest that technologies should be assessed during the purchasing process, end-users should be adequately involved, and decisions should be based on multiple criteria including clinical impact in the short-term (e.g., primary stability of implant) and long-term (e.g., survival of implant). The focus on Mexico is particularly novel and provides insights into a health system where HTA is mainly present at the macro level and can be used for the listing of medical device technologies in the standard list. This study concludes that Mexican stakeholders of the purchasing process underestimate the contribution of HTAs at the level of purchasing decisions. HTA in Mexico has improved over the past years but still requires more advancement.

[Teenagers' access to contraception in Mexico City]. / El acceso a métodos anticonceptivos en adolescentes de la Ciudad de México.

OBJECTIVE:: To study and understand the phenomenon of access to contraceptive methods in Mexican teenages, through the use of the Levesque model, which allows for the observation of both the system and the system and the user´s participation in the access process. MATERIALS AND METHODS:: A qualitative study was conducted with focus groups technique in a middle and high school of Mexico City. RESULTS:: The perception of ability to access to health care is limited, teenagers do not know the mechanisms of care or supply of contraceptive methods. Prejudices of service providers provoke a negative reaction. The family is a source of information for adolescents to make decisions. CONCLUSIONS:: The model allowed the assessment of access to contraceptive methods in teenagers. It were identified different aspects that act as barriers to access and may inform health care providers about this population in their sexual and reproductive health.

[Empowerment and social support for patients with chronic kidney disease: case study in Michoacán, MexicoEmpoderamento e apoio social de pacientes com nefropatia crônica: estudo de caso em Michoacán, México]. / Empoderamiento y apoyo social en pacientes con enfermedad renal crónica: estudio de caso en Michoacán, México.

OBJECTIVE: Identify the degree of empowerment and the characteristics of the social support for individuals with chronic kidney disease (CKD). METHODS: Cross-sectional study of people with chronic kidney disease living in the municipality of Hidalgo, Michoacán, Mexico, who belong to the Association of Kidney Patients, Civil Association. The study examined the sociodemographic profile and personal characteristics associated with the disease, the degree of empowerment, the degree of social support, and family functioning. RESULTS: Close to 90% of the sample receives sufficient social support, while 40% of the participants belong to semi-cohesive or cohesive families The overall empowerment score was 117.5 ± 14.3; community empowerment was higher in the older group (P < 0.05). Positive social interaction is the social support component most strongly correlated with the degree of empowerment (r = 0.333; P < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Empowerment is determined by, and is a determinant of, social support and has facilitated access to renal replacement therapy in this community.

OBJETIVO: Identificar o nível de empoderamento e apoio social de pacientes com nefropatia crônica. MÉTODOS: Estudo transversal realizado com pacientes com nefropatia crônica residentes no município de Fidalgo, Michoacán, México, que participavam de uma associação civil de pacientes renais crônicos (Asociación de Enfermos del Riñón). Foram investigados aspectos pessoais e sociodemográficos dos pacientes associados à doença, nível de empoderamento e apoio social e funcionamento familiar. RESULTADOS: Cerca de 90% da amostra estudada dispõem de uma rede de apoio social satisfatória e 40% pertencem a famílias com boa coesão ou coesão média. A pontuação global de empoderamento foi de 117,5 ± 14,3 e o empoderamento comunitário foi maior no grupo com idade mais avançada (P < 0,05). Interação social positiva é o componente da rede de apoio social com correlação mais forte com o nível de empoderamento (r = 0,333; P < 0,01). CONCLUSÕES: O empoderamento é determinado pela rede de apoio social, sendo também um determinante deste apoio, e facilita o acesso à terapia renal substitutiva nesta comunidade.

Effects of procurement practices on quality of medical device or service received: a qualitative study comparing countries.

BACKGROUND: We know little about how procurement of a high-risk medical device (HRMD) affects clinical practice and outcomes. In health systems in high-income countries, and specifically those that maintain a national arthroplasty registry, procurement decisions are frequently guided by long-term clinical results, with the goal of ensuring at least standard quality of HRMDs. But in countries like Mexico, decision-making is often dominated by lowest acquisition price. We set out to study the impact of procurement for orthopaedic HRMDs on clinical procedures and outcomes. METHODS: We based our qualitative study on 59 in-depth interviews with stakeholders from Mexico, Switzerland, Germany, and UK: orthopaedic specialists, government officials, other experts, and social security system managers or administrators. We took a healthcare delivery approach to capturing and comparing factors that affected the regulations of HRMDs and procurement processes, and to understanding connections between procurement and clinical practice. RESULTS: Our findings demonstrate for procurement processes that the three European countries compared to Mexico don't have similar concerns with regards to their procurement processes. Deficiencies of procurement regulations and practices identified from representatives in Mexico were almost absent in European countries. We identified three areas of deficiency: 1) HRMD regulations based on insufficiently robust clinical evidence (mainly noted by European countries); 2) Follow-up on Health Technology Assessments is inadequate (noted by Mexico) and methodology not always good enough (noted by European countries); and, 3) Lowest-acquisition price often guides procurement decisions and thus may not align with needs of clinical procedures (noted by Mexico and some European countries). CONCLUSIONS: Procurement processes for orthopaedic HRMDs may have an impact on clinical procedures and outcomes. A favourable approach is one where orthopaedic specialists are parties to the procurement process, and post-market surveillance data informs decision-making. Actors in the procurement process can improve their impact on clinical procedures and outcomes by developing specific strategies that better align the needs of both, procurement and clinical procedures.

How does the knowledge environment shape procurement practices for orthopaedic medical devices in Mexico?

BACKGROUND: In organisational theory there is an assumption that knowledge is used effectively in healthcare systems that perform well. Actors in healthcare systems focus on managing knowledge of clinical processes like, for example, clinical decision-making to improve patient care. We know little about connecting that knowledge to administrative processes like high-risk medical device procurement. We analysed knowledge-related factors that influence procurement and clinical procedures for orthopaedic medical devices in Mexico. METHODS: We based our qualitative study on 48 semi-structured interviews with various stakeholders in Mexico: orthopaedic specialists, government officials, and social security system managers or administrators. We took a knowledge-management related perspective (i) to analyse factors of managing knowledge of clinical procedures, (ii) to assess the role of this knowledge and in relation to procurement of orthopaedic medical devices, and (iii) to determine how to improve the situation. RESULTS: The results of this study are primarily relevant for Mexico but may also give impulsion to other health systems with highly standardized procurement practices. We found that knowledge of clinical procedures in orthopaedics is generated inconsistently and not always efficiently managed. Its support for procuring orthopaedic medical devices is insufficient. Identified deficiencies: leaders who lack guidance and direction and thus use knowledge poorly; failure to share knowledge; insufficiently defined formal structures and processes for collecting information and making it available to actors of health system; lack of strategies to benefit from synergies created by information and knowledge exchange. Many factors are related directly or indirectly to technological aspects, which are insufficiently developed. CONCLUSIONS: The content of this manuscript is novel as it analyses knowledge-related factors that influence procurement of orthopaedic medical devices in Mexico. Based on our results we recommend that the procurement mechanism should integrate knowledge from clinical procedures adequately in their decision-making. Without strong guidance, organisational changes, and support by technological solutions to improve the generation and management of knowledge, procurement processes for orthopaedic high-risk medical devices will remain sub-optimal.

[Evaluation of Mexican 'Sicalidad' health quality program]. / Evaluación de la implementación del programa Sicalidad en México.

OBJECTIVE: To analize the implementation of the Sistema Integral de Calidad en Salud (Sicalidad) program of the Ministry of Health in the 2011. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study follows a cross sectional design, hybrid, with a qualitative and quantitative components. A cluster probabilístic sample was used with two stages. A total of 3 034 interviews were carried out in 13 states to evaluate the implementation of the eight components of the Sicalidad program. General indexes of performance (GIP) were formulated for structure process and satisfaction of users, physicians and nurses with the program. RESULTS: The GIP with the lower score was accreditation of health facilities with a range of scores between 25.4 and 28% in the medical units evaluated; The highest range of scores was in the component of nosocomial infection prevention between 78.3 and 92%. CONCLUSION: In brief the Sicalidad components evaluated suggest problems with both structure and critical process elements in the implementation of the quality initiatives.

Recommendations to improve healthcare of neonates with respiratory insufficiency beneficiaries of Seguro Popular.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the structure and processes of care of neonatal intensive care units (NICU) providing health care to neonates with respiratory insufficiency, and financed by Seguro Popular. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A cross-sectional design was used; 21 NICU were included. Information was collected from four sources: Seguro Popular database, self-applicable interviews to medical staff, structure and processes format, and reviews of clinical charts. VARIABLES: structure, processes of care, drug supplies, training, and neonates' clinical conditions. RESULTS: The analysis of the database included 9 679 newborns. The respiratory disorders were transitory tachypnea, non-specific respiratory insufficiency, respiratory distress syndrome, (RDS) perinatal asphyxia, and meconium aspiration syndrome. 90% of NICU'S directors considered that drug supply was good, whereas only 16% of neonatologist had this opinion. 58.5% of neonates with RDS had <37 gestation weeks. 34.2% with RDS were prescribed alveolar surfactant; 51% received dosages above recommended standards. CONCLUSIONS: Recommendations to improve infrastructure and care processes are issued.

Quality of health care of the medical units that provide services for Medical Insurance for a New Generation enrollees.

OBJECTIVE: In this evaluation we assess the quality of the general and clinical structure in medical units that deliver health services for the Medical Insurance for a New Generation (SMNG) enrollees. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study population included 82 medical units that deliver health services to enrollees of the SMNG in 15 states of Mexico, during 2009. Two indexes: the general structure index and the clinical structure index were created. RESULTS: It was found an unequal quality of the general and clinical structure in the different levels of care. The results suggest that the first level of care lacks both important general and clinical structural items. They also show on average a regular quality in the second level of care and a good quality in the third level of care medical units. CONCLUSIONS: Our results support the main conclusion of the work of Bulatao, "Improving services requires moving beyond policy reform to strengthening implementation of services".

The use of the tracer methodology to assess the quality of care for patients enrolled in Medical Insurance for a New Generation.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the quality of care provided at medical units that provide services to Medical Insurance for a New Generation (SMNG) enrollees. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The tracer methodology was used in a sample of 82 medical units selected in fifteen states of Mexico and data collected in November 2009. RESULTS: Problems were found to locate the minimal number of the 18 medical charts requested in three of the tracers. The first level of care on the average reports that the quality of the process of care is 6, in a 10 point scale. In the second level improves and the third level of care is better qualified. CONCLUSIONS: The tracer methodology has enabled us to assess the quality of care. There is room for improvement in the medical units of the state health services, to that end should be directed the efforts in the health system in Mexico.

Design of the 2009 evaluation of the Medical Insurance for a New Generation program.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the mixed-method approach to evaluate the Medical Insurance for a New Generation (Seguro Médico para una Nueva Generación, SMNG). MATERIALS AND METHODS: The program has been comprehensively evaluated. It has four key domains: 1) SMNG design; 2) children's health status and socio-demographic characteristics; 3) performance by measuring coverage, efficiency and productivity; 4) family health expenditure. Quantitative and qualitative research approaches have been used. This included reviews of existing databases and clinical charts, collection of empirical data through in-depth interviews with healthcare providers, and a nation-wide household survey. CONCLUSION: The results should serve as baseline data of the health status of SMNG children and the current staus of the program.

[Transforming health systems based on primary care]. / La transformación del sistema de salud con base en la atención primaria.

Access to health services is a social basic determinant of health in Mexico unlike what happens in developed countries. The demand for health services is focused on primary care, but the design meets only the supply of hospital care services. So it generates a dissonance between the needs and the effective design of health services. In addition, the term affiliation refers to population contributing or in the recruitment process, that has been counted as members of these social security institutions (SS) and Popular Insurance (SP). In the case of Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social (IMSS) three of four contributors are in contact with health services; while in the SP, this indicator does not exist. Moreover, the access gap between health services is found in the health care packages so that members of the SS and SP do not have same type of coverage. The question is: which model of health care system want the Mexicans? Primary care represents the first choice for increasing the health systems performance, as well as to fulfill their function of social protection: universal access and coverage based on needs, regardless whether it is a public or private health insurance. A central aspect for development of this component is the definition of the first contact with the health system through the creation of a primary health care team, led by a general practitioner as the responsible of a multidisciplinary health team. The process addresses the concepts of primary care nursing, consumption of inputs (mainly medical drugs), maintenance and general services. Adopting a comprehensive strategy that will benefit all Mexicans equally and without discrimination, this primary care system could be financed with a total operating cost of approximately $ 22,809 million by year.

What Opportunities Exist for Making the Food Supply Nutrition Friendly? A Policy Space Analysis in Mexico.

BACKGROUND: As part of a global policy response for addressing malnutrition, food system actions have been proposed. Within food system interventions, policies directed to supply chains have the potential to increase the availability and affordability of a healthy diet. This qualitative study aimed to identify opportunities to integrate nutrition as a priority into the food supply policy space in Mexico. METHODS: Data were collected through analysis of 19 policy documents and 20 semi-structured stakeholder interviews. As an analytical framework, we used policy space analysis and embedded the Advocacy Coalition Framework (ACF) and the steps of the food chain of the conceptual framework of food systems for diets and nutrition. RESULTS: Policy issues relevant to nutrition were viewed differently in the economic and agricultural sectors versus the health sector. Overall, the main policy objective related to nutrition within the economic and agricultural sectors was to contribute to food security in terms of food quantity. Nutrition was an objective in itself only in the health sector, with a focus on food quality. Our policy space analysis reveals an opportunity to promote a new integrated vision with the recent creation of an intersectoral group working on the public agenda for a food system transformation. This newer integrative narrative on food systems presents an opportunity to shift the existing food security narrative from quantity towards considerations of diet quality. CONCLUSION: The political context and public agenda are favorable to pursue a food system transformation to deliver sustainable healthy diets. Mexico can provide a case study for other low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) for putting nutrition at the center of food policy, despite the ongoing constraints on achieving this.

[The diagnosis of chronic kidney disease as a tracer of the technical capacity in care facilities of 20 Mexican states]. / Diagnóstico de la enfermedad renal crónica como trazador de la capacidad técnica en la atención médica en 20 estados de México.

OBJECTIVE: To assess knowledge and technical capacity of primary care physicians in the management of patients with diabetes mellitus and high blood pressure as well as patients at risk of developing chronic kidney disease, and to use the latter condition as a tracer of the quality of primary care of the Mexican health system. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A cross-sectional study included 149 primary health physicians in primary care units from state health care services in 20 states. An instrument with two clinical cases was applied. RESULTS: The average score of the physicians evaluated was 53.7 out of 100. Those physicians working in larger size units and graduated before the year 2000 tend to receive lower scores. CONCLUSIONS: The use of chronic kidney disease as a tracer of the technical capacity of the Mexican health care system is useful to understand the problems of primary care in the country's public settings.

[Direct cost analysis of hemodialysis units]. / Costos directos de la hemodiálisis en unidades públicas y privadas.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate and compare direct costs per hemodialysis session in public and private units in Mexico City. MATERIAL AND METHODS: PAATI, a microcosting strategy, was used to determine total costs of four public and two private health hospitals in Mexico City. A "shadow study" approach was employed to collect the needed data. Charts containing the "PAATI" information for each session were developed in Microsoft Excel. RESULTS: The average annual cost per patient undergoing hemodialysis in public units is $158 964.00 MX. The estimated cost for the care of all population estimated in need of renal replacement therapy (via hemodialysis) was estimated to be $10 921 788 072.00 MX. CONCLUSION: Human resources and infrastructure availability in México are very limited for nephrology, and in consequence for offering hemodialysis services.

[An indirect estimation of current and future inequalities in the frequency of end stage renal disease in Mexico]. / Una estimación indirecta de las desigualdades actuales y futuras en la frecuencia de la enfermedad renal crónica terminal en México.

OBJECTIVE: To describe current and future health inequalities in End Stage Renal Disease in Mexico (ESRD) in Mexican states with varying degrees of marginality. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Using results, obtained by us in 2009, of an indirect estimation of incidence, prevalence, and mortality rates, and of the average case duration, we grouped these data according to the social deprivation level of the Mexican states. We measured health inequalities using the Health Concentration Index. RESULTS: We found rising inequalities, between 2005 and 2025, in ESRD incidence, prevalence and mortality rates, as well as in the average duration of cases. CONCLUSION: We project an important increase in the prevalence of ESRD for 2025 which will be greater in the Mexican states with more marginality. This will increase health inequities already present and represent important challenges for health care financing, especially if no action is taken to control the causes and progression of ESRD.

[Calculating the optimum size of a hemodialysis unit based on infrastructure potential]. / Estimación del tamaño óptimo de una unidad de hemodiálisis con base en el potencial de su infraestructura.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the optimum size for hemodialysis units to maximize production given capital constraints. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A national study in Mexico was conducted in 2009. Three possible methods for estimating a units optimum size were analyzed: hemodialysis services production under monopolistic market, under a perfect competitive market and production maximization given capital constraints. RESULTS: The third method was considered best based on the assumptions made in this paper; an optimal size unit should have 16 dialyzers (15 active and one back up dialyzer) and a purifier system able to supply all. It also requires one nephrologist, five nurses per shift, considering four shifts per day. CONCLUSION: Empirical evidence shows serious inefficiencies in the operation of units throughout the country. Most units fail to maximize production due to not fully utilizing equipment and personnel, particularly their water purifier potential which happens to be the most expensive asset for these units.

Role of depressive symptoms and comorbid chronic disease on health-related quality of life among community-dwelling older adults.

OBJECTIVE: This study examined the influence of depressive symptoms on health-related quality of life (HRQOL) among community-dwelling older adults suffering from various categories of chronic comorbidity. METHODS: A population-based survey in adults aged 60 years or more was conducted within a random sample of 1085 beneficiaries of the Mexican Institute of Social Security in Mexico City. Depressive symptoms were evaluated with the 15-item Geriatric Depression Scale, and chronic comorbidity was determined with self-reports concerning prior medical diagnoses and the HRQOL Short Form-36 health survey. We carried out a stratified analysis by comorbidity category, evaluating the impact of depressive symptoms on HRQOL through an analysis of variance and modeling the independent association of depression symptoms with HRQOL using multiple linear regression analyses adjusted for comorbidity and other covariables. RESULTS: HRQOL scores were low in the presence of depressive symptoms, while their impact increased when chronic diseases were also present. The group with the poorest HRQOL was older adults suffering from both depressive symptoms and two or more chronic diseases (P<.05). The stratified analysis by comorbidity and multivariate analysis, adjusted for covariables, indicated that depressive symptoms and comorbidity had cumulative negative effects on HRQOL. CONCLUSION: The HRQOL of older adults deteriorated when depressive symptoms were present and decreased even further with the simultaneous occurrence of chronic illnesses. Identifying depression symptoms-either alone or along with chronic conditions-is crucial for implementation of measures aimed at improving elderly people's HRQOL.

Health care utilization and health-related quality of life perception in older adults: a study of the Mexican Social Security Institute.

OBJECTIVE: To establish how health care service utilization patterns are associated with health-related quality of life (HRQL) perception in older adults. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A cross-sectional study in adults aged 60 years or more was conducted in a random sample of 1150 beneficiaries of the Mexican Social Security Institute (IMSS) in Mexico City during 2003. Health care services utilization was categorized as preventive or curative, which generated six usage profiles. HRQL was measured by means of the SF-36 questionnaire. Analyses of variance and multiple linear regressions were conducted to evaluate the relationship between health care services utilization and HRQL. RESULTS: The use of preventive and curative services has a positive association with HRQL levels. Usage profiles with a prevalence of preventive services have a stronger positive association with HRQL scales. CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests a positive association between use patterns for primarily preventive health care services and a better HRQL perception among older adults.