Power output at the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition decreases in a non-linear fashion during prolonged exercise.

PURPOSE: The aims of this study were to: (i) describe the time course of the decrease in power output at the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition during prolonged exercise; (ii) investigate the association between durability of the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition and exercise capacity; and (iii) explore physiological correlates of durability of the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition. METHODS: Twelve trained cyclists (age: 40 ± 8 y, V ˙ O2peak: 52.3 ± 5.2 mL·min-1·kg-1) performed an exhaustive cycling protocol involving alternating incremental exercise tests to determine power output at the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition via the first ventilatory threshold (VT1), and 30-min bouts at 90% of the power output at the previously estimated VT1 in the rested state. The individual time course of VT1 was modelled using linear and second-order polynomial functions, and time to a 5% decrease in VT1 (Δ5%VT1) was estimated using the best-fitting model. RESULTS: Power output at VT1 decreased according to a second-order polynomial function in 11 of 12 participants. Time-to-task failure (234 ± 66 min) was correlated with Δ5%VT1 (139 ± 78 min, rs = 0.676, p = 0.016), and these were strongly correlated with absolute and relative rates of fat oxidation at specific exercise intensities measured during the incremental test performed in the rested state. CONCLUSIONS: These data: (i) identify a non-linear time course of decreases in the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition during prolonged exercise; (ii) support the importance of durability of the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition in prolonged exercise capacity; and (iii) suggest durability of the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition is related to fat oxidation rates.

Thermal responses induced by nitrogen and forced convection based partial-body cryostimulation.

Partial Body Cryostimulation (PBC) involves a very cold air flow directed to the body of subjects with minimal clothing. PBC is performed in a rapid timeframe, inside an on-purposed designed cryo-cabin. Recently, cryo-cabins have been built with different energy systems, however a validation study on relative thermal responses is missing. This study was aimed at comparing thermal responses following a PBC in an electrically powered cryo-cabin based on forced convection or into a standard nitrogen-fueled cryo-cabin. In a randomized crossover fashion, thirty-six subjects (F=20; M=16) underwent both cryo-exposures lasting 150 s each. Thermal responses were assessed before and immediately after completing each PBC session. Mixed model analysis of variance revealed a significantly colder temperature after electric PBC in all the body regions (except for the thighs) with respect to a standard nitrogen based PBC (F: 16.4 ± 1.4 vs 18 ± 5.8 °C; M: 16.4 ± 1.7 vs 20.9 ± 4 °C). Moreover, a significant lower thermal discomfort was perceived at the end of electric PBC as compared to that one felt following standard PBC. For the first time, the safety and thermo-effectiveness of an electric cryo-cabin based on forced convection was ensured. This methodology can be viable for practitioners of PBC and clinicians.

How do world class top 5 Giro d'Italia finishers train? A qualitative multiple case study.

The aim of this study was to describe individual training strategies in preparation to Giro d'Italia of three world class road cyclists who achieved a top 5 in the general classification. Day-to-day power meter training and racing data of three road cyclists (age: 26, 27, 25 years; relative maximum oxygen consumption: 81, 82, 80 ml·min-1 ·kg-1 ; relative 20-min record power output: 6.6, 6.6, 6.4 W kg-1 ) of the 22 weeks (December-May) leading up to the top 5 in Giro d'Italia general classification were retrospectively analyzed. Weekly volume and intensity distribution were considered. Cyclists completed 17, 22, 29 races, trained averagely for 19.7 (7.9), 16.2 (7.0), 14.7 (6.2) hours per week, with a training intensity distribution of 91.3-6.5-2.2, 83.6-10.6-5.8, 86.7-8.9-4.4 in zone 1-zone 2-zone 3 before the Giro d'Italia. Two cyclists spent 55 and 39 days at altitude, one did not attend any altitude camp. Cyclists adopted an overall pyramidal intensity distribution with a relevant increase in high-intensity volume and polarization index in races weeks. Tapering phases seem to be dictated by race schedule instead of literature prescription, with no strength training performed by the three cyclists throughout the entire periodization.

Differences in Training Characteristics Between Junior, Under 23 and Professional Cyclists.

The aim was to compare the training characteristics of junior, under 23 and professional road cyclists. Training data collected during the 2019 competitive season of thirty male cyclists, divided into three age-related categories (JUN; U23; PRO), were retrospectively analyzed for training characteristics, external and internal training load. Higher duration per training session were observed in PRO (2.6±0.3 h) compared to both U23 (2.2±0.3 h; P<0.001) and JUN (2.0±0.2 h; P<0.001). Elevation gain per distance was higher in PRO (13.8±1.9 m·km-1) compared to U23 (10.6±0.9 m·km-1; P=0.001) and JUN (6.7±0.3 m·km-1; P<0.001), and in U23 compared to JUN (P<0.001). Annual total work was lower in JUN (3694±467 kJ·kg-1) compared to U23 (5268±746 kJ·kg-1; P=0.001) and PRO (5759±1103 kJ·kg-1; P<0.001). eTRIMP per hour was higher in JUN (151±40) compared to both U23 (115±23; P=0.003) and PRO (112±22; P=0.013). JUN spent more training time at medium and high heart rate intensity zones compared to U23 and PRO (P<0.05).

Primary motor cortex excitability as a marker of plasticity in a stimulation protocol combining action observation and kinesthetic illusion of movement.

Action observation combined with proprioceptive stimulation able to induce a kinesthetic illusion of movement (AO-KI) was shown to elicit a plastic increase in primary motor cortex (M1) excitability, with promising applications in rehabilitative interventions. Nevertheless, the known individual variability in response to combined stimulation protocols limits its application. The aim of this study was to examine whether a relationship exists between changes in M1 excitability during AO-KI and the long-lasting changes in M1 induced by AO-KI. Fifteen volunteers received a conditioning protocol consisting in watching a video showing a thumb-opposition movement and a simultaneous proprioceptive stimulation that evoked an illusory kinesthetic experience of their thumbs closing. M1 excitability was evaluated by means of single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation before, DURING the conditioning protocol, and up to 60 min AFTER it was administered. M1 excitability significantly increased during AO-KI with respect to a rest condition. Furthermore, AO-KI induced a long-lasting increase in M1 excitability up to 60 min after administration. Finally, a significant positive correlation appeared between M1 excitability changes during and after AO-KI; that is, participants who were more responsive during AO-KI showed greater motor cortical activity changes after it. These findings suggest that M1 response during AO-KI can be considered a neurophysiological marker of individual responsiveness to the combined stimulation since it was predictive of its efficacy in inducing long-lasting M1 increase excitability. This information would allow knowing in advance whether an individual will be a responder to AO-KI.

Effectiveness and safety of a thermal insulating coverage on the top of the cryo-cabin during a partial-body cryostimulation.

Partial Body Cryostimulation (PBC) consists of exposing minimally dressed participants to very cold air, in a specially designed cabin (cryo-cabin), for a short period of time. In recent years, cryo-cabins have been launched with a coverage to limit thermo-dispersion, however a validation study is lacking. The aim of this study was to compare thermal responses after a PBC protocol in an open cryo-cabin or into a cryo-cabin closed at the top with a polyurethane-made lid. Eighteen young male adults completed the two 150 s PBC sessions in a cross-over fashion. Temperature of the inner cabin and thermal responses were measured prior and 1, 5, 10, 20 min after completing each PBC session. When covered, cryo-cabins maintained a lower temperature in the front with respect to the back. There was a significant interaction regarding coverage*time*position with a main effect of coverage. Body surfaces were significantly colder under covered condition compared to open PBC. Subjects perceived a greater thermal discomfort during a covered PBC rather than during an open condition. For the first time, the use of a coverage placed on the top of the cabin was demonstrated to maintain lower temperatures of the inner environment and the users' skin with respect to a standard PBC. This evidence indicates that practitioners and clinicians making use of PBC can successfully and safely cover cryo-cabins with an insulating lid so to improve the effectiveness of their treatments.

Boosting and consolidating the proprioceptive cortical aftereffect by combining tendon vibration and repetitive TMS over primary motor cortex.

Tendon vibration of a limb elicits illusory movements in the direction that the vibrated muscle would be stretched, followed by a transient perception of movement in the opposite direction, that was demonstrated to correspond to a "cortical" aftereffect (Goodwin et al. Science 175:1382-1384, 1972). Primary motor cortex (M1) excitability of the non-vibrated antagonist muscle of the vibrated muscle increased during vibration and decreased thereafter. The cortical aftereffect is of interest when considering the possibility to use tendon vibration in rehabilitation for restoring unbalance activity between antagonistic muscles but, due to its short-lasting duration, has not been explored so far. We investigated the possibility to consolidate the cortical aftereffect by combining tendon vibration with a concomitant high-frequency 5-Hz repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) protocol. The distal tendon of the flexor carpi radialis muscle (FCR) was vibrated and concomitantly a 2-min 5-Hz rTMS protocol was administered on the left hemi-scalp hot spot of the vibrated FCR or its antagonist muscle (extensor carpi radialis (ECR)). We found that this protocol induced a pattern of unbalanced M1 excitability between vibrated muscle and its antagonist with increased excitability of the FCR and decreased excitability of ECR cortical areas, which persisted up to 30 min.

Effects of Two High-intensity Interval Training Concepts in Recreational Runners.

This study investigated the effects induced by 8 weeks of two high-intensity interval training (HIIT) protocols, 10-20-30 and 30-30 concepts, characterized by significantly different training volume and intensity, on physiological parameters, running performance, body composition and psychophysiological stress of recreational divided into two groups: the 10-20-30 group performed two 10-20-30 sessions/wk and one continuous training (CT)/wk, whilst the 30-30 group performed two 30-30 sessions/wk and one CT session/wk. VO2max, 1 km time, maximal aerobic speed (MAS), and body composition were evaluated before and after intervention. Internal load was measured through rating of perceived exertion (RPE). Both groups significantly improved running performance (1 km time: p=0.04; MAS: p=0.000001), aerobic fitness (VO2max: p=0.000002) and body composition (lean mass (kg) p=0.0001; fat mass (%) p=0.00005). RPE resulted significantly lower in the 10-20-30 group than in 30-30 group (10-20-30: 13.36±0.28; 30-30:15.55±0.21; p=0.0002). Thus, the 10-20-30 group improved physiological parameters, performance and body composition, similar to 30-30 with significantly lower RPE values. These results suggest that in recreational runners the 10-20-30 training is effective in improving aerobic fitness and performance, with a lower subjective perception of effort, thus enhancing individual compliance and adherence to the prescribed training program.

Warm-up plus verbal communications administered as placebo procedure during the training session improves running performance.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects on running performance of a within-session placebo procedure consisting of a conditioning treatment plus verbal communications. Twenty-six subjects were assigned to PLACEBO and CONTROL groups. Participants performed three sessions: Session 1-Cooper Test, Session 2-Baseline session and Session 3-Experimental session. During Session 2, participants performed a sprint-interval-training (SIT)-until-exhaustion preceded by a general warm-up, while in Session3 the SIT was preceded by a conditioning treatment (FIFA11+ warm-up), known to be effective in preventing injuries but not improving performance. Moreover, in Session3, only the PLACEBO group received verbal suggestions (before the warm-up) to influence participants' expectations about FIFA11+ effectiveness in improving performance, and deceptive feedback (during each SIT recovery bout) to increase the conditioning effect. To evaluate performance improvements, Running Time was chosen as a main outcome while to ensure participants reached exhaustion, physiological and metabolic responses were monitored. Total running distance (TRD) was also measured. Results showed that, Running Time and TRD significantly increased in the PLACEBO group whilst no differences in the CONTROL group were observed thus, suggesting the effectiveness of the within-session-placebo procedure in improving running performance. These findings shed a new light on the interaction between cognitive domain and performance, thus encouraging coaches to adopt this innovative method during the training protocol to enhance athletes' performance. Moreover, this placebo procedure, not requiring additional time, tools or resources, could represent a more ecological approach that can be easily adopted in the field.

The Day-by-Day Periodization Strategies of a Giro d'Italia Podium Finisher.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to describe the day-by-day training and racing characteristics in preparation for the Giro d'Italia of 1 world-class road cyclist who achieved a place on the podium in the final general classification of the Giro d'Italia. METHODS: Day-by-day power meter training and racing data of 1 study subject (road cyclist; age 25 y; relative maximum oxygen consumption 81 mL·min-1·kg-1; relative 20-min record power output 6.6 W·kg-1) covering the 152 days leading up to the podium in the Giro d'Italia final general classification were retrospectively analyzed. Daily load, daily volume, and intensity distribution were considered. RESULTS: During training a pattern alternating "hard days" versus "easy days" was observed, as significant amounts of medium or high intensity, or load, were not performed for more than 2 consecutive days This pattern was achieved combining high volume (>4 h) with a significant amount of medium and high intensity within the same training sessions. During training, when training load and intensity increased, the density of "easy days" augmented. In 1-week stage races and the Giro d'Italia, 3 to 8 consecutive days with significant amounts of medium and high intensity were performed. A high number of training sessions with small amounts of medium- and high-intensity volume was observed: 38 days accumulating 3 to 10 minutes at medium intensity and 29 days spending 1 to 9 minutes at high intensity. CONCLUSION: These data provide novel insights about the day-by-day periodization strategies leading to a top 3 in the Giro d'Italia general classification.

Short intermittent taekwondo test to assess athlete's physiological and metabolic profile.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to assess the effectiveness of a new Short Intermittent Taekwondo Test (SITT) in 17 black belt athletes. METHODS: Maximal oxygen uptake (V̇O2max), carbon dioxide production (V̇CO2), respiratory exchange ratio (RER), heart rate (HR), and blood lactate concentration [La]+ during treadmill cardiopulmonary exercise test (CPET) and SITT were compared. SITT started with 10 sec of all-out kicks, alternating legs, and progressively increasing 5 s on each stage until the 4th stage. After the 4th stage the participants performed 25 s of turning kicks (Dolleo chagi), on each stage until the last (10th stage). The passive recovery phase after the 4th and the 7th stage lasted 30 s. RESULTS: V̇O2max and maximal HRmax were not significantly different (P=0.85 vs. P=0.76) between tests, while RER and [La]+ were significantly higher in SITT than in CPET (P=0.002 vs. P=0.001). No difference in RPE (P=0.84) was found. A significant positive correlation between two tests for V̇O2max and HRmax was found. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings showed that SITT induces physiological responses like CPET suggesting that it can be used to assess aerobic power in national taekwondo athletes, thus helping coaches to select correctly training intensities and monitor athletes' aerobic performance along the training phases.

Shuttle Running Within a Small-Sided Game: Effects on Internal and External Workloads, in Young Elite Soccer Players.

PURPOSE: To compare the effects of 2 small-sided games (SSGs), shuttle running within the bout (SSG-S) versus possession play only (SSG-P) on acute physiological and metabolic responses, perception of effort, and performance. METHODS: Ten young elite male soccer players (age 18.6 [1.9] y) performed two 5vs5 SSG formats (SSG-S and SSG-P) consisting of 4 × 4 minutes with 1 minute of passive recovery between bouts, 2 times each, once a week, and in a randomized order. Heart rate, blood lactate concentration, and rating of perceived exertion were assessed as indices of internal workload. Total and relative distances, distance at moderate and high speed, distances traveled in accelerations (≥2 m·s-2) and decelerations (≤-2 m·s-2; DDEC), and average metabolic power were chosen as indices of external workload and collected with a 10-Hz portable global positioning system device. RESULTS: Total distance, distances traveled in acceleration, distances traveled in deceleration, average metabolic power (always P < .01 and g > 1.62-large effect), and distance at moderate speed (P = .03 and g = 0.84-large effect) were significantly higher in SSG-S than in SSG-P. Moreover, the SSG-S showed higher blood lactate concentration (P = .0001, g = 12.58-large effect) and rating of perceived exertion (P = .03, g = 1.14-large effect) values than SSG-P. No significant differences in peak heart rate, relative distance, and distance at high speed were found. CONCLUSIONS: Our study showed, in young competitive male soccer players, the effectiveness of an SSG format that includes shuttle running within each bout in the development of more relevant internal and external workloads. These experimental data should encourage coaches to use this new SSG regimen within the traditional weekly training program.

Aging deteriorates the ability to discriminate the weight of an object during an action observation task.

The ability to predict the weight of objects is important for skilled and dexterous manipulation during activities of daily living. The observation of other people moving objects might represent an important source of information on object features and help to plan the correct motor interaction with it. In aging, an impaired ability to evaluate the object weight might have negative drawbacks in term of the safety of the person. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of aging in the ability to discriminate the object weight during action observation. Twenty older adults (Old) and twenty young subjects (Young) performed a two-interval forced-choice task consisting in the observation of a couple of videos showing an actor moving a box of different weights. The observer had to evaluate which video showed the heavier box. Handgrip strength was acquired from all subjects. Sensitivity analysis was performed and psychometric curves were built on participants' responses. The results showed a diminished sensitivity in the object weight discrimination in Old than in Young group. The analysis of the psychometric curves revealed that this impairment pertained both the light and heavy boxes and the minimum difference to discriminate different weights was greater in Old than in Young. At last, the sensitivity and the discrimination ability significantly correlated with individuals' handgrip strength. These findings allow us to deeply characterize the impairments older adults have in discriminating the weight of an object moved by another individual.

Sensorimotor expertise influences perceptual weight judgments during observation of a sport-specific gesture.

This study aimed to investigate the role of sensorimotor expertise in evaluating relative weight of a lifted object during the observation of a sport-specific gesture, namely the deadlift. Fifty-six participants, assigned to three groups according to their experience in weight lifting, powerlifters, CrossFit® practitioners and naïve participants (controls), performed a perceptual weight judgments task. Participants observed videos showing a powerlifter executing a deadlift at the 80%, 90% and 100% of 1 repetition maximum (1RM) and answered a question about the weight of the lifted object. Participants' response accuracy and variability were evaluated. Findings showed that powerlifters were more accurate than controls. No differences appeared between powerlifter and CrossFit® practitioners, and between CrossFit® practitioners and controls. Response variability was similar in the three groups. These findings suggest that a fine sensorimotor expertise specific for the observed gesture is crucial to detect the weight of the object displayed in the observed movement, since it might allow detecting small changes in the observed movement kinematics, which we speculate are at the basis of the object weight recognition.

The metronome-based methodology to monitor the stroke length changes in trained swimmers.

The aim of our study was to develop a methodology that uses the metronome to constrain the swimmers' stroke rate with the aim to monitor changes in stroke length (SL) during two different periods of the season. Thirteen young trained swimmers (15.7 ± 1.7 y) performed three 50 m front crawl time trials during pre-season (PRE) and after 2 months, during the in-season period (IN). They were asked: (I) to swim at their maximum intensity (NO-MET condition); (II) to synchronize their stroke with a metronome beat set to their preferred intra-stroke-interval (ISI) (100% condition, corresponding to 48 ± 0.7 cycles/min); (III) to synchronize their stroke with a metronome beat set at 5% higher than their preferred ISI (95% condition, corresponding to 51 ± 0.8 cycles/min). The outcome parameters used to evaluate the performance were ISI, SL and total time of 50 m (TT). In NO-MET condition, results showed that TT in IN improved with respect to PRE, but no changes in ISI and SL. In 100% condition, no differences were obtained between the imposed and the performed ISI, whilst in 95% condition, the performed ISI was lower than the metronome ISI, and lower than that in 100% condition. At last, when using the metronome, SL was higher during IN compared to PRE and SL was lower in the 95% condition compared to the 100% condition. Results indicate that the use of the metronome successfully allowed monitoring changes in SL during different periods of the season. This methodology provides valuable information to coaches and athletes to enhance their performance throughout the season.

Efficacy of Resisted Sled Sprint Training Compared With Unresisted Sprint Training on Acceleration and Sprint Performance in Rugby Players: An 8-Week Randomized Controlled Trial.

PURPOSE: To compare the effects between resisted sled sprint training (RSS) and unresisted sprint training (URS) on sprint and acceleration performance, vertical jump, and maximal strength during an 8-week period of preseason training. METHODS: Twenty-six recreational active rugby players were randomly divided into either RSS or URS training groups and then performed 8 weeks of training, 2 sessions/wk of sprint-specific training program. The RSS group performed sprints by towing a sled overloaded with 12.6% of body mass for 2 of the 3 sets of 3 × 20-m sprints, plus one set was carried out with unresisted modality. The URS groups performed 3 sets of 3 × 20-m unresisted sprints. The measures of 10- and 30-m sprint times, vertical jump, and 3-repetition-maximum (3-RM) squat tests were performed at baseline and after 8 weeks. RESULTS: Ten- and 30-m sprint times (P < .05 and ηp2>.44) improved significantly more in RSS than in URS. Both groups improved significantly in vertical jump and 3-RM squat tests; however, no significant differences (P > .1 and ηp2<.11) between groups were found. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings indicate that an 8-week program of RSS is more effective than URS for enhancing sprint time performance in male recreational active rugby players. In addition, these data suggest that a sled overload corresponding to 12.6% of body mass can induce positive effects on both acceleration and speed performance in recreational active rugby players.

The Weekly Periodization of Top 5 Tour de France General Classification Finishers: A Multiple Case Study.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to describe individual training characteristics, racing strategies, and periodization in preparation for the Tour de France in 2 world-class road cyclists finishing in the top 5 of the general classification. METHODS: Week-by-week power meter training and racing data of 2 (A and B) road cyclists (age: 29 and 23 y; maximum oxygen consumption: 83 and 81 mL·min-1·kg-1; and relative 20-min record power output: 6.9 and 6.5 W·kg-1) in the preparation phase (December-July/August) leading up to the Tour de France were retrospectively analyzed. Weekly volume and intensity distribution in power zones were considered. RESULTS: Cyclists A and B completed 46 and 19 races, 22.5 (6.3) and 18.2 (5.1) h·wk-1, with a pyramidal intensity distribution of 81.0%-13.3%-5.7%, and 88.8%-7.9%-3.3% in zone 1-zone 2-zone 3. Cyclist B spent 14 days at altitude. Increased high-intensity volume and polarization index occurred during race weeks. During periods without racing, training intensity progressively increased. Strength training was performed during November and December but not during the following months. During tapering, total exercise volume and time at high intensity decreased. CONCLUSION: These data provide novel insights into the periodization of world-class road cyclists in advance of a top 5 placing in the Tour de France general classification.

Partial-body cryostimulation procured performance and perceptual improvements in amateur middle-distance runners.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of partial-body cryostimulation on middle-distance runners before two 3000-m tests at the speed of the first and second ventilatory threshold, and before a time to exhaustion test at 110% of the maximal aerobic speed. Twelve amateur runners (age: 46 ± 9 years; VO2max: 51.7 ± 4.9 ml·kg-1·min-1) completed six running testing sessions in a randomized counterbalanced cross-over fashion: three of them were preceded by a partial-body cryostimulation and the other three by a control condition. The testing sessions consisted of: 1) a 3000-m continuous running test at the speed of the first ventilatory threshold; 2) a 3000-m continuous running test at the speed of the second ventilatory threshold; 3) a time to exhaustion test at 110% of the maximal aerobic speed. Heart rate, ratings of perceived exertion and visual analogue scale relative to muscle pain were recorded throughout the tests. Total quality recovery was evaluated 24-48 h after the end of each test. Distance to exhaustion was higher after partial-body cryostimulation than control condition (p = 0.018; partial-body cryostimulation: 988 ± 332 m, control: 893 ± 311 m). There were differences in the ratings of perceived exertion during each split of the 3000-m continuous running test at the speed of the second ventilatory threshold (p = 0.001). Partial-body cryostimulation can be positively considered to enhance middle-distance running performance and reduce perception of effort in amateur runners.

High-Intensity Interval Training for Rowing: Acute Responses in National-Level Adolescent Males.

Background: This study investigated the acute effects of two high-intensity interval training (HIIT) programs on physiological responses and internal workload. Methods: Ten national-level adolescent male rowers (age: 15.7 ± 0.2 years; maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max): 60.11 ± 1.91 mL∙kg−1∙min−1) performed two HIIT testing sessions: short (S-HIIT) and long (L-HIIT). In S-HIIT, the rowers performed 25 reps of 30 s at 100% power at VO2max (Pmax) interspersed with 30 s at P@20% Pmax; whereas in L-HIIT, the rowers executed 4 × 4 min at P@90% Pmax interspersed with 3 min of active recovery (P@30% Pmax). Results: The acute physiological responses and internal workload were evaluated. The significance level was set at p < 0.05. Oxygen uptake (VO2) (p < 0.05), time spent per session at ~90% VO2max (p < 0.01), total VO2 consumed (p < 0.01), total distance (p < 0.001), the rating of perceived exertion, blood lactate concentration and heart rate (always p < 0.0001) were significantly higher in L-HIIT than in S-HIIT. However, peak power output was significantly lower in L-HIIT compared to S-HIIT (p < 0.0001). Conclusion: In adolescent rowers, both HIIT tests stimulated aerobic and anaerobic systems. The L-HIIT test was associated with acute cardiorespiratory and metabolic responses, as well as higher perceptions of effort than the S-HIIT test. In adolescent rowers, HIIT emerges as an asset and could be introduced into a traditional in-season, moderate-intensity and endurance-based rowing program once a week.

Do Race Results in Youth Competitions Predict Future Success as a Road Cyclist? A Retrospective Study in the Italian Cycling Federation.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between youth road cycling success and becoming a professional cyclist. Specifically, the authors sought to analyze (1) the differences in the success scores in youth categories between future professional (PRO) and future nonprofessional (NON-PRO) cyclists, (2) whether relative age effect influences youth road cycling career pathways, and (3) whether youth competition success could predict a future career as a professional cyclist. METHODS: The number of points gathered in the annual national ranking of 1345 Italian cyclists in the U17, U19, and U23 categories were retrospectively analyzed. Participants were divided into 2 groups: PRO (n = 43) and future NON-PRO (n = 1302), depending on whether they reached the professional level. RESULTS: PRO outperformed NON-PRO in all the youth categories considered (ie, U17, U19, and U23). Older cyclists within the same annual age group were not overrepresented in PRO and do not have an advantage over younger cyclists within all the competition years. The number of points gathered in youth competitions provides an indication of probability of becoming professional cyclists from U17 onward with the predictive value increasing with age category. CONCLUSIONS: Handling the transition to a new age group well (especially the U19-U23 transition), and therefore having success competing against older and more experienced cyclists, is an important factor for talent identification in youth cycling.