Candida albicans Cyr1, Cap1 and G-actin form a sensor/effector apparatus for activating cAMP synthesis in hyphal growth.

A key virulence trait of Candida albicans is its ability to undergo the yeast-to-hyphal growth transition in response to environmental signals. This transition critically requires a rapid activation of the adenylyl cyclase Cyr1 to generate a cAMP spike. However, the identity of the signal sensors and mechanisms of signal processing and integration remain largely unclear. Recent evidence suggests that some sensors are embedded in Cyr1 itself. To test this hypothesis, we asked whether purified Cyr1 can respond to hyphal induction. Here, we report that Cyr1 co-purifies with Cap1 and G-actin as a tripartite complex which can increase cAMP synthesis in response to hyphal inducing signals in an actin-dependent manner. Cap1 binds Cyr1 and G-actin through its N- and C-terminus respectively. Deleting the G-actin binding sites or treating the complex with the actin toxin latrunculin A or cytochalasin A inhibits the activation of cAMP synthesis. Strains expressing Cap1 mutants lacking the G-actin binding site are impaired in both cAMP synthesis and hyphal morphogenesis. Thus, our findings reveal an essentially intact sensor/effector apparatus composed of Cyr1, Cap1 and G-actin. Furthermore, G-actin's regulatory role in this apparatus may prove to be the missing link whereby cellular actin status knowingly influences cAMP-mediated cellular processes.

Ras1 and Ras2 play antagonistic roles in regulating cellular cAMP level, stationary-phase entry and stress response in Candida albicans.

The GTPase Ras1 activates the yeast-to-hypha transition in Candida albicans by activating cAMP synthesis. Here, we have characterized Ras2. Ras2 belongs to a group of atypical Ras proteins in some fungal species that share poor identity with other Ras GTPases with many variations in conserved motifs thought to be crucial for Ras-associated activities. We find that recombinant Ras2 is enzymatically as active as Ras1. However, only RAS1 can rescue the lethality of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae ras1 ras2 mutant, suggesting functional divergence of the two genes. ras2Delta is normal in hyphal growth, but deleting RAS2 in the ras1Delta background greatly aggravates the hyphal defect, indicating that Ras2 also has a role in hyphal development. Strikingly, while RAS1 deletion causes a approximately 20-fold decrease in cellular cAMP, further deletion of RAS2 restores it to approximately 30% of the wild-type level. Consistently, while the ras1Delta mutant enters the stationary phase prematurely, the double mutant does so normally. Moreover, ras1Delta cells exhibit increased resistance to H(2)O(2) and higher sensitivity to the heavy metal Co(2+), whereas ras2Delta cells show the opposite phenotypes. Together, our data reveal a novel regulatory mechanism by which two antagonizing Ras GTPases balance each other in regulating multiple cellular processes in C. albicans.

Predictive value of α-amylase in tracheal aspirates for ventilator-associated pneumonia in elderly patients.

OBJECTIVE: This study aims to investigate the correlation between α-amylase in tracheal aspirates and risk factors of aspiration, as well as ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP), in elderly patients undergoing mechanical ventilation and explore the clinical value of α-amylase for predicting VAP. METHODS: Tracheal aspirates were collected from elderly patients within 2 weeks after tracheal intubation in mechanical ventilation, and α-amylase was detected. Patients were grouped according to the presence of VAP. The correlation between α-amylase and risk factors of aspiration before intubation, as well as VAP, were analyzed. RESULTS: The sample of this study comprised 147 patients. The average age of these patients was 86.9 years. The incidence of VAP was 21% during the study period. Tracheal aspirate α-amylase level increased with the increase in the number of risk factors for aspiration before intubation, α-amylase level was significantly higher in the VAP group than in the non-VAP group, the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (ROC) of the diagnostic value of α-amylase for VAP was 0.813 (95% CI: 0.721-0.896), threshold value was 4,681.5 U/L, sensitivity was 0.801 and specificity was 0.793. Logistic multivariate analysis revealed the following risk factors for VAP: a number of risk factors before intubation of ≥3, a Glasgow score of <8 points, the absence of continuous aspiration of subglottic secretion and a tracheal aspirate α-amylase level of >4681.5 U/L. CONCLUSION: Tracheal aspirate α-amylase can serve as a biomarker for predicting VAP in elderly patients undergoing mechanical ventilation.

Linking cellular actin status with cAMP signaling in Candida albicans.

The fungal pathogen Candida albicans has a remarkable ability to switch growth forms. Particularly, the yeast-to-hyphae switch is closely linked with its virulence. A range of chemicals and conditions can promote hyphal growth including serum, peptidoglycan, CO2, neutral pH, and elevated temperature. All these signals act essentially through the adenylyl cyclase Cyr1 that synthesizes cAMP. Cells lacking Cyr1 are completely defective in hyphal growth. Recently, cellular actin status is found to influence cAMP synthesis. However, how Cyr1 senses and processes multiple external and internal signals to produce a contextually proper level of cAMP remains unclear. We hypothesized that Cyr1 itself possesses multiple sensors for different signals and achieves signal integration through a combined allosteric effect on the catalytic center. To test this hypothesis, we affinity-purified a Cyr1-containing complex and found that it could enhance cAMP synthesis upon treatment with serum, peptidoglycan or CO2 in vitro. The data indicate that the complex is an essentially intact sensor/effector apparatus for cAMP synthesis. The complex contains two more subunits, the cyclase-associated protein Cap1 and G-actin. We discovered that G-actin plays a regulatory role, rendering cAMP synthesis responsive to actin dynamics. These findings shed new lights on the mechanisms that regulate cAMP-mediated responses in fungi.

Bacterial peptidoglycan triggers Candida albicans hyphal growth by directly activating the adenylyl cyclase Cyr1p.

Human serum potently induces hyphal development of the polymorphic fungal pathogen Candida albicans, a phenotype that contributes critically to infections. The fungal adenylyl cyclase Cyr1p is a key component of the cAMP/PKA-signaling pathway that controls diverse infection-related traits, including hyphal morphogenesis. However, identity of the serum hyphal inducer(s) and its fungal sensor remain unknown. Our initial analyses of active serum fractions revealed signs of bacterial peptidoglycan (PGN)-like molecules. Here, we show that several purified and synthetic muramyl dipeptides (MDPs), subunits of PGN, can strongly promote C. albicans hyphal growth. Analogous to PGN recognition by the mammalian sensors Nod1 and Nod2 through their leucine-rich-repeat (LRR) domain, we show that MDPs activate Cyr1p by directly binding to its LRR domain. Given the abundance of PGN in the intestine, a natural habitat and invasion site for C. albicans, our findings have important implications for the mechanisms of infection by this pathogen.

RA domain-mediated interaction of Cdc35 with Ras1 is essential for increasing cellular cAMP level for Candida albicans hyphal development.

Many Ras GTPases activate their effectors through binding at a conserved Ras association (RA) domain. An example is the activation of the budding yeast adenylate cyclase Cyr1 by Ras1 and Ras2. Candida albicans Ras1 is speculated to similarly activate Cdc35, the orthologue of Cyr1, for hyphal development. Here, we have investigated whether the RA domain mediates Ras1-Cdc35 interaction and how this interaction regulates cAMP levels and morphogenesis. Yeast two-hybrid assays suggested that Ras1 interacts only with the RA but not any other identifiable domains of Cdc35. The Ras1-RA interaction was further confirmed by in vitro binding assays of purified RA domain and Ras1 and by co-immunoprecipitation of Ras1 and Cdc35 from cell lysates. Substituting Ala for the conserved residue K(338) or L(349) in the RA domain or deleting the RA domain abolished the Ras1-RA or Ras1-Cdc35 interactions. cdc35 mutants with the RA domain deleted or carrying K388A or L349A mutation exhibited rather normal yeast growth but were completely defective in hyphal morphogenesis. Further, the mutants contained nearly wild-type levels of cAMP during yeast growth but were unable to increase it upon hyphal induction. These results suggest an essential role for the RA-mediated Ras1-Cdc35 interaction in raising cellular cAMP levels for hyphal morphogenesis.

Characterization of iron-binding motifs in Candida albicans high-affinity iron permease CaFtr1p by site-directed mutagenesis.

A peptide motif Glu-Xaa-Xaa-Glu has been implicated in direct binding of ferric iron in several proteins involved in iron transport, sensing or storage. However, it is not known whether the motif alone is sufficient for iron binding and whether functional replacement of the conserved residues by other amino acids with similar properties is possible. We previously identified a Candida albicans iron permease, CaFtr1p, which contains five Glu-Xaa-Xaa-Glu motifs [Ramanan and Wang (2000) Science 288, 1062-1065]. In this study, we investigated the role of each of these motifs in iron uptake by site-directed mutagenesis. Substitution of Ala for any one of the two Glu residues in Glu-Gly-Leu-Glu(158-161) abolished iron-uptake activity, while the same substitution in any of the other four motifs had little effect, indicating that only the motif at position 158-161 is required for iron transport. We then evaluated the importance of each of the residues within and immediately adjacent to this motif in iron uptake. The permease remained active when any one of the Glu residues was replaced by Asp, while it became inactive when both were replaced. We also found that the amino acid immediately in front of Glu-Gly-Leu-Glu(158-161) must be either Arg or Lys. In addition, substitution of any of the two residues in the middle with several structurally distinct amino acids had no detectable effect on iron uptake. Here we propose to extend the iron-binding motif to Arg/Lys-Glu/Asp-Xaa-Xaa-Glu or Arg/Lys-Glu-Xaa-Xaa-Glu/Asp, which may serve as a guide for the identification of potential iron-binding sites in proteins.

Cloning, characterisation and expression of Aeromonas hydrophila major adhesin.

Aeromonas hydrophila, an important pathogen in fish, is believed to cause diseases by adhesive and enterotoxic mechanisms. The adhesion is a prerequisite for successful invasion. In this study, the gene of a 43 kDa major adhesin (designated as AHA1) was cloned and expressed. Nucleotide sequence analysis of AHA1 revealed an open reading frame encoding a polypeptide of 373 amino acids with a 20-amino-acid putative signal peptide (molecular weight 40,737 Da). The amino acid sequences of Aha1p showed a very high homology with the other two outer membrane proteins of A. hydrophila. Using the T-5 expression system, this major adhesin Aha1p was expressed in Escherichia coli. The purified recombinant adhesin could competitively inhibit A. hydrophila from invading fish epithelial cells in vitro. Western-blot analysis showed that this major adhesin is a very conserved antigen among various strains of Aeromonas. When used to immunise blue gourami, the recombinant adhesin could confer significant protection to fish against experimental A. hydrophila challenge.