Serum Titanium Levels Remain Elevated But Urine Titanium is Undetectable in Children With Early Onset Scoliosis Undergoing Growth-Friendly Surgical Treatment: A Prospective Study.

BACKGROUND: Elevated serum titanium levels have been found in patients with early onset scoliosis (EOS) treated with traditional growing rods (TGR), magnetically controlled growing rods (MCGR), and vertical expandable prosthetic titanium rib (VEPTR). No studies have investigated whether serum titanium remains persistently elevated and if titanium is excreted. Our purpose was to compare serum titanium levels in patients with EOS with growth-friendly instrumentation to age-matched controls and evaluate urine titanium and serial serum titanium levels in patients with EOS. METHODS: This was a prospective case-control study. Patients with EOS with TGR, MCGR, or VEPTR underwent urine titanium and serial serum titanium collection at a minimum 6-month interval. Control patients did not have a history of metal implant insertion and underwent serum titanium collection before fracture fixation. RESULTS: Twenty patients with EOS (6 TGR, 8 MCGR, and 6 VEPTR) and 12 controls were analyzed. The control group had no detectable serum titanium (0 ng/mL), whereas the patients with EOS had a median serum titanium of 4.0 ng/mL ( P < 0.001). Analysis of variance showed significantly higher median serum titanium levels in the MCGR and VEPTR groups than the TGR group at time point 1 (5.5 vs 6.0 vs 2.0 ng/mL, P = 0.01) and time point 2 (6.5 vs 7.5 vs 2.0 ng/mL, P < 0.001). Binary comparisons showed a significant difference in serum titanium level between TGR and MCGR (time point 1: P = 0.026, time point 2: P = 0.011) and TGR and VEPTR (time point 1: P = 0.035, time point 2: P = 0.003). However, there was no difference between MCGR and VEPTR (time point 1: P = 0.399, time point 2: P = 0.492) even though the VEPTR group had a longer duration of follow-up ( P = 0.001) and a greater number of lengthenings per patient at the first serum collection ( P = 0.016). No patients with EOS had detectable urine titanium. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with EOS treated with titanium alloy growth-friendly instrumentation had elevated serum titanium levels compared with age-matched controls that persisted over time with no evidence of renal excretion. Additional studies are necessary to assess for local and systemic accumulation of titanium and the significance of long-term exposure to titanium in growing children. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III, therapeutic.

Comparison of EOSQ-24 and SRS-22 Scores in Congenital Scoliosis: A Preliminary Study.

BACKGROUND: The 24-item Early-Onset Scoliosis Questionnaire (EOSQ-24) and 22-item Scoliosis Research Society (SRS-22) questionnaire measure health-related quality of life in patients with scoliosis. The EOSQ-24 has been recently validated in early-onset scoliosis (EOS), including congenital scoliosis (CS). The SRS-22 has been validated in idiopathic scoliosis. The EOSQ-24 is completed by the caregiver and the SRS-22 is completed by the patient. The primary purpose of this study was to compare the EOSQ-24 and SRS-22 in patients with CS. The secondary purpose was to compare scores by age and also in developmentally delayed patients. We hypothesized that the SRS-22 is appropriate for children with EOS from CS who do not have a diagnosis of developmental delay. METHODS: This was a prospective comparative study. A prospective institutional CS database was queried to identify patients who had the EOSQ-24 and SRS-22 completed at the same time point. Children without a diagnosis of developmental delay completed both questionnaires if they understood the questions, regardless of age. Otherwise, the caregiver completed both questionnaires. For the analysis, similar questions were matched so that the EOSQ-24 questions fit into the SRS-22 domains of Function, Pain, Mental Health, and Satisfaction. Pearson correlation coefficients (r) were used to compare domain scores, with r≥0.70 indicating a strong relationship. RESULTS: The final study group included 98 patients. The average age at completion of the questionnaires was 9.5 years. A strong correlation was found for all domains except Satisfaction when the patient or caregiver completed both questionnaires. Subanalysis demonstrated the strongest relationship between domains in the age group 0 to 5 years. In developmentally delayed patients, a weak correlation was noted for all domain scores except Pain, which showed a strong correlation. There was a strong correlation for Pain and a weak correlation for Satisfaction domains across all subgroups. CONCLUSIONS: The SRS-22 may be appropriate for children with EOS from CS who do not have a diagnosis of developmental delay. Our findings suggest that the results of previous studies that collected the SRS-22 and future studies that collect the EOSQ-24 can be correlated. It remains unclear which questionnaire is more suitable for developmentally delayed patients. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level I-diagnostic.

Obese Children Have Different Forearm Fracture Characteristics Compared With Normal-weight Children.

BACKGROUND: Current estimates suggest that one third of children and adolescents are overweight and 1 in 5 are obese. Obese children are at increased risk of sustaining more complex fractures, failing nonoperative treatment, and experiencing more complications during treatment. The purpose of this study was to compare forearm fracture characteristics, treatment, and complications in grouped overweight and obese [OW+OB; body mass index-for-age percentile (BMI%) ≥85] pediatric patients compared with normal-weight (NW; BMI%≤84) patients. METHODS: This was a retrospective comparative study of patients aged 2 to 17 years old who presented with a forearm fracture resulting from low-energy trauma between January 2010 and September 2017. Patients with incomplete height and weight data; an underlying condition that predisposes to fractures or altered fracture healing; and torus, greenstick, pathologic, and high-energy fractures were excluded. Demographics, fracture characteristics, treatment, and complications were recorded. Descriptive and inferential analyses were conducted. RESULTS: A total of 565 patients (403 NW, 162 OW+OB) met the inclusion criteria. NW children sustained open fractures nearly twice as frequently as the OW+OB children but this was not statistically significant (9.7% vs. 4.9%; P=0.065). Subanalysis showed that NW children were 4.1 times more likely to sustain an open fracture compared with obese (BMI%≥95) children (9.7% vs. 2.4%; P=0.029). A significant relationship was found between BMI% and location of the fracture, the bones involved, and fracture type. The OW+OB children sustained more distal forearm fractures than midshaft and proximal forearm fractures. Isolated radial shaft fractures were more common in the OW+OB group, whereas isolated ulnar shaft fractures were more common in the NW group. There was no difference in associated neurovascular injury, initial nonoperative versus operative management, failure of nonoperative treatment, and treatment complications. CONCLUSIONS: OW+OB children have different forearm fracture characteristics compared with their NW peers. The thick soft tissue envelope in obese children may be protective against an open forearm fracture. In contrast to previous studies, obesity was not associated with failure of nonoperative treatment or a higher rate of complications. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III-prognostic.

Elevated Serum Titanium Levels in Children With Early Onset Scoliosis Treated With Growth-friendly Instrumentation.

BACKGROUND: A previous study showed significantly higher serum titanium levels in patients with early-onset scoliosis (EOS) treated with traditional growing rods (TGR) and magnetically controlled growing rods (MCGR) compared with controls. Children with vertical expandable prosthetic titanium rib (VEPTR) were not assessed. The purpose of this study was to compare serum titanium levels in EOS patients treated with TGR, MCGR, and VEPTR. We hypothesized that EOS patients treated with all forms of growth-friendly instrumentation (GFI) have elevated serum titanium levels. METHODS: This was a prospective cross-sectional case series. Serum titanium levels were collected from patients with GFI who were enrolled in an EOS database. Blood samples were collected at a clinic visit or lengthening/exchange procedure between April and December 2018. The normal range for serum titanium is 0 to 1 ng/mL. Analyses were conducted using analysis of variance and Bonferroni post hoc test. RESULTS: A total of 23 patients (2 TGR, 8 MCGR, 13 VEPTR) were analyzed. There was a significant difference in age at the time of blood sample collection (12.5 vs. 9.8 vs. 7.5 y, P=0.015) and serum titanium level (1.5 vs. 4.5 vs. 7.6 ng/mL, P=0.021) between TGR, MCGR, and VEPTR, respectively. All of the MCGR and VEPTR patients had a serum titanium level ≥2 ng/mL. Binary comparisons showed that VEPTR had a significantly higher serum titanium level than TGR (P=0.046). There was no difference in serum titanium level when MCGR was compared with TGR and VEPTR. Time from implant insertion to blood sample collection, number of rods currently implanted, total number of rods implanted throughout treatment, and number of lengthenings per patient was similar between the groups. CONCLUSIONS: Elevated serum titanium levels may be present in EOS patients treated with all forms of GFI. Although our TGR patients had indwelling implants for the longest period of time, they had the lowest serum titanium level. Repetitive chest wall motion during respiration may lead to continued wear and metal ion release with VEPTR. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level II-therapeutic.

Level of Experience Does Not Influence the Accuracy of Radiographic and Ultrasound Measurements of Magnetically Controlled Growing Rod Distractions.

BACKGROUND: Magnetically controlled growing rods (MCGR) have become a popular surgical option for the treatment of early-onset scoliosis. Both radiographs and ultrasound are currently used to measure the amount of length achieved when MCGRs are distracted. Previous studies have investigated the intraobserver and interobserver reliability of radiographic and ultrasound measurements of MCGR distraction. Some authors have reported that there is a "learning curve" in measuring MCGR lengthening with ultrasound, suggesting that new users require several months of experience before they can accurately perform the measurements. The goal of this study was to determine whether surgical experience of the rater is associated with the accuracy of radiographic and ultrasound measurements of MCGR distraction. METHODS: Six raters evaluated 29 deidentified radiographs and 30 ultrasound images from early-onset scoliosis patients with MCGR. Raters had varying levels of experience, ranging from a senior fellowship-trained pediatric orthopaedic surgeon to a junior orthopaedic surgery resident. Raters measured the amount of rod distraction in 2 sessions spaced 2 weeks apart. All raters were provided with a document demonstrating the radiographic and ultrasound measurement techniques before the first round of measurements. Intraclass correlation coefficients were calculated. RESULTS: Excellent intraobserver and interobserver agreement was achieved for both radiographic and ultrasound measurements of MCGR distraction. Subanalysis based on experience level showed that excellent intraobserver agreement was maintained with no evidence of decreased reliability in raters with less experience. CONCLUSIONS: Excellent intraobserver and interobserver agreement was obtained with radiographic and ultrasound measurements of MCGR distraction, regardless of the experience level of the rater. Posting a document with the radiographic and ultrasound measurement techniques in the orthopaedic surgery clinic, and perhaps also the radiology reading room may help avoid inaccurate measurements of distraction length secondary to a learning curve. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III-diagnostic.

Intraobserver and Interobserver Reliability of Radiographic Analysis of Proximal Humerus Fractures in Adolescents.

BACKGROUND: Multiple studies have shown low intrarater and interrater agreement of radiographic classification systems for proximal humerus fractures (PHFs) in adults. There is no standardized method of measuring angulation of pediatric PHFs, nor is there consensus as to the amount of angulation and displacement that require operative fixation of adolescent PHFs. We propose a new standardized method to measure fracture angulation that is similar to the method used to measure the epiphyseal-shaft angle for slipped capital femoral epiphysis. The primary purpose of this study was to evaluate the intraobserver and interobserver reliability of our proposed method compared with a nonstandardized method. The secondary purpose was to evaluate the intrarater and interrater agreement of the Neer and Horowitz (NH), and Salter-Harris (SH) classification systems. METHODS: Seven raters evaluated 26 deidentified anteroposterior shoulder radiographs of patients 10 to 16 years of age with PHFs. Raters classified each fracture using the NH and SH systems, and used their own method to measure fracture angulation. This process was repeated 2 weeks later. During the second round, raters also measured fracture angulation using our proposed standardized method. Two weeks after the second round, raters reevaluated the radiographs using the standardized method. Intraclass correlation coefficients were calculated. RESULTS: Excellent intraobserver and interobserver agreement was achieved for the standardized method of measuring fracture angulation. All of the raters had an intrarater reliability classified as excellent (>0.80) using the standardized method. Good intrarater and excellent interrater agreement was achieved when raters used their own fracture angulation measurement method but wide confidence intervals suggested that the results were less precise. Fair to moderate intrarater and interrater reliability was seen for the NH and SH classifications. CONCLUSIONS: Our standardized method for measuring angulation in adolescent PHFs demonstrated excellent intrarater and interrater reliability. We propose that this technique may be a more precise method of measuring fracture angulation and this method should be used in future studies that evaluate indications for operative management of adolescent PHFs. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III-diagnostic.

A cluster of high psychological and somatic symptoms in children with idiopathic scoliosis predicts persistent pain and analgesic use 1 year after spine fusion.

BACKGROUND: Persistent postoperative pain is a significant problem for many children, particularly for those undergoing major surgery such as posterior spine fusion. More than two-thirds report persistent pain after spine fusion, yet factors that may contribute to poorer outcomes remain poorly understood. AIMS: This prospective, longitudinal study examined how psychologic and somatic symptoms cluster together in children aged 10-17 years with idiopathic scoliosis, and tested the hypothesis that a higher psychological and somatic symptom cluster would predict worse pain outcomes 1 year after fusion. METHODS: Otherwise healthy children with idiopathic scoliosis completed preoperative surveys measuring recent pain intensity, pain location(s), somatic symptom severity, painDETECT (neuropathic-type pain symptoms), pain interference, fatigue, depression, anxiety, and pain catastrophizing. Pain outcome data were collected during hospitalization, and at 1 year after surgery. RESULTS: Ninety-five children completed baseline surveys and a cluster analysis differentiated 28 (30%) with a high symptom profile that included; higher depression, fatigue, pain interference, catastrophizing, and painDETECT scores. High symptom cluster membership independently predicted higher pain interference at 1 year (ß 9.92 [95% CI 6.63, 13.2], P < 0.001). Furthermore, children in this high symptom cluster reported significantly higher pain intensity and painDETECT scores, and had a 50% higher probability of continued analgesic use at 1 year compared to those in the Low Symptom Cluster (95% CI 21.3-78.5, P = 0.001). CONCLUSION: Findings from this exploratory study suggest a need to comprehensively assess children with scoliosis for preoperative signs and symptoms that may indicate an underlying vulnerability for persistent pain. This, in turn may help guide a comprehensive perioperative treatment strategy to mitigate the potential for long-term pain trajectories.

Adolescent clavicle nonunions: potential risk factors and surgical management.

BACKGROUND: Clavicle nonunions in adolescent patients are exceedingly rare. The purpose of this study was to evaluate a series of clavicle nonunions from a pediatric multicenter study group to assess potential risk factors and treatment outcomes. METHODS: A retrospective review of all clavicle nonunions in patients younger than 19 years was performed at 9 pediatric hospitals between 2006 and 2016. Demographic and surgical data were documented. Radiographs were evaluated for initial fracture classification, displacement, shortening, angulation, and nonunion type. Clinical outcomes were evaluated, including rate of healing, time to union, return to sports, and complications. Risk factors for nonunion were assessed by comparing the study cohort with a separate cohort of age-matched patients with a diaphyseal clavicle fracture. RESULTS: There were 25 nonunions (mean age, 14.5 years; range, 10.0-18.9 years) identified, all of which underwent surgical fixation. Most fractures were completely displaced (68%) initially, but 21% were partially displaced and 11% were nondisplaced. Bone grafting was performed in 24 of 25 cases, typically using the hypertrophic callus. Radiographic healing was achieved in 96% of cases. One patient (4%) required 2 additional procedures to achieve union. The primary risk factor for development of a nonunion was a previous history of an ipsilateral clavicle fracture. CONCLUSIONS: Clavicle nonunions can occur in the adolescent population but are an uncommon clinical entity. The majority occur in male patients with displaced fractures, many of whom have sustained previous fractures of the same clavicle. High rates of union were achieved with plate fixation and the use of bone graft.

Complications After Plate Fixation of Displaced Pediatric Midshaft Clavicle Fractures.

BACKGROUND: Operative treatment of displaced pediatric midshaft clavicle fractures has become increasingly popular, despite lack of evidence that surgical management leads to superior outcomes. Complications, such as plate irritation necessitating removal and wound infection, have been reported in adults. The purpose of this study was to evaluate complications after plate fixation of midshaft clavicle fractures in the pediatric population. METHODS: We retrospectively identified patients 10 to 18 years old who had undergone plate fixation of a displaced midshaft clavicle fracture between 2009 and 2014. Patients who had surgery for a malunion or nonunion, and patients with <6 months of follow-up were excluded. Demographic data, radiographic union, time to return to activity, and complications were recorded. Any complication that led to unplanned surgery was considered a major complication. RESULTS: We analyzed 36 patients (25 males, 11 females) with 37 fractures. The average age at surgery was 14.5±1.7 years and mean follow-up was 1.3±1.0 years. All of the fractures healed and average time to return to activity was 58±28 days. The overall postoperative complication rate was 86% (32/37): 59% (22/37) implant prominence or irritation, 16% (6/37) anterior chest wall numbness, 5% (2/37) superficial wound dehiscence or infection, 3% (1/37) refracture adjacent to the plate, and 3% (1/37) refracture after implant removal. The major complication rate was 43% (16/37). Fifteen patients underwent a second surgery for implant removal secondary to prominence or pain. One patient underwent revision open reduction and internal fixation after he sustained a refracture at the distal aspect of the plate that resulted in a painful nonunion. Only 1 patient had a refracture after implant removal and this was treated nonoperatively. CONCLUSIONS: Implant prominence or irritation is common after plate fixation of displaced pediatric midshaft clavicle fractures. A second surgery for implant removal may be necessary. Patients should be appropriately counseled regarding complications before plate fixation of midshaft clavicle fractures. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level IV-therapeutic.

A High Preoperative Pain and Symptom Profile Predicts Worse Pain Outcomes for Children After Spine Fusion Surgery.

BACKGROUND: Preoperative pain predicts persistent pain after spine fusion, yet little is understood about the nature of that pain, related symptoms, and how these symptoms relate to postoperative pain outcomes. This prospective study examined children's baseline pain and symptom profiles and the association between a high symptom profile and postoperative outcomes. METHODS: Seventy children (aged 10-17 years) scheduled for correction of idiopathic scoliosis completed pain and symptom surveys during their preoperative visit (ie, pain intensity [0-10 numeric rating scores], a pediatric version of the 2011 fibromyalgia survey criteria [including pain locations and symptom severity scale], neuropathic pain symptoms [painDETECT], and Patient-Reported Outcome Measurement System measures of fatigue, depression, function, pain interference, and pain catastrophizing). Pain intensity and total analgesic use were recorded daily postoperatively and for 2 weeks after discharge. A 2-step cluster analysis differentiated a high and low pain and symptom profile at baseline, and a multivariate main effects regression model examined the association between pain profile and posthospital discharge pain and analgesic outcomes. RESULTS: The cluster analysis differentiated 2 groups of children well characterized by their baseline symptom reporting. Thirty percent (95% confidence interval [CI], 20.2%-41.8%) had a high symptom profile with higher depression, fatigue, pain interference, a pediatric version of the fibromyalgia survey criteria symptoms, neuropathic pain, and catastrophizing. Girls were more likely than boys to be clustered in the high symptom profile (odds ratio [OR], 5.76 [95% CI, 1.20-27.58]; P = .022) as were those with preoperative pain lasting >3 months (OR, 3.42 [95% CI, 1.21-9.70]; P = .018). Adjusting for sex, age, and total in-hospital opioid consumption, high cluster membership was independently associated with higher self-reported pain after discharge (mean difference +1.13 point [97.5% CI, 0.09-2.17]; P = .015). Children in the high symptom cluster were more likely to report ongoing opioid use at 2 weeks compared with the low symptom group (87% vs 50%; OR, 6.5 [95% CI, 1.30-33.03]; P = .015). At 6 months, high symptom cluster membership was associated with higher pain intensity, higher pain interference, and ongoing analgesic use (P ≤ .018). CONCLUSIONS: A behavioral pain vulnerable profile was present preoperatively in 30% of children with idiopathic scoliosis and was independently associated with poorer and potentially long-lasting pain outcomes after spine fusion in this setting. This high symptom profile is similar to that described in children and adults with chronic and centralized pain disorders and was more prevalent in girls and those with long-standing pain. Further study is needed to elucidate the potential mechanisms behind our observations.

Congenital Scoliosis: A Case-Based Approach.

Congenital scoliosis is lateral curvature of the spine caused by vertebral anomalies. Congenital scoliosis is associated with congenital anomalies of other organ systems. Traditionally, treatment options for patients with congenital scoliosis focused on posterior spinal fusion. Current surgical treatment options for young children include growing rods, vertical expandable prosthetic titanium ribs, and, most recently, magnetic rods. Hemivertebrae resection is an important early treatment option for patients who have a hemivertebra. Intraoperative navigation may be an important tool that can be used to improve the accuracy of pedicle screw placement in patients who have abnormal pedicles.

Mapping the Road to Recovery: Shorter Stays and Satisfied Patients in Posterior Spinal Fusion.

BACKGROUND: Adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS) patients undergoing posterior spinal fusion (PSF) experience variations in their hospital care, which may lead to differences in objective and patient-reported outcomes. The purpose of this study was to demonstrate that using plan of care-educating families preoperatively and standardizing some aspects of care-would decrease time to mobility and time to discharge while maintaining pain control and patient satisfaction. METHODS: Chart review was conducted in 3 groups-preprotocol (December 2008 to December 2009, n=51), first protocol (December 2, 2009 to July 24, 2013, n=100), and second protocol (July 25, 2013 to June 1, 2014, n=39)-to track pain scores (0 to 10), time to regular diet, Foley catheter removal, epidural catheter removal, mobility, and discharge. Patient satisfaction surveys (0 to 10) were administered before discharge. Statistical analysis was performed using a 1-way analysis of variance test with Tukey post hoc analysis. RESULTS: Average pain scores were similar in all groups. Time to sitting was significantly reduced in both first protocol (27.2±9.8 h, P=1×10) and second protocol (28.4±13.6 h, P=3×10) compared with preprotocol (40.2±15.4 h). Time to discharge was significantly lower in second protocol (84.3±27.2 h, P=0.036) compared with first protocol (98.4±27.8 h). Patient satisfaction with care was significantly higher in first protocol (9.1/10, P=2×10) and second protocol (8.6/10, P=5×10) compared with preprotocol (6.5/10). CONCLUSIONS: By educating families preoperatively and standardizing portions of postoperative care in PSF for AIS, pain scores were significantly reduced while overall satisfaction remained high. Specifically, by removing the epidural and Foley catheters on postoperative day 2, time to discharge was dramatically decreased by 15 hours. The application of a multidisciplinary, evidence-driven plan of care for AIS patients undergoing PSF improves throughput and has beneficial effects on objective and patient-reported outcomes. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III-retrospective case series.

Severity of Asynchronous Slipped Capital Femoral Epiphyses in Skeletally Immature Versus More Skeletally Mature Patients.

BACKGROUND: Routine prophylactic screw fixation for skeletally immature patients with slipped capital femoral epiphysis (SCFE) continues to be debated. The purpose of this study was to assess the slip severity of a second SCFE in skeletally immature versus more mature patients and determine necessity of contralateral hip prophylactic screw fixation. METHODS: All patients treated for SCFE at 3 pediatric hospitals over a 10-year time period (January 1, 2002 to December 31, 2011) were evaluated. Patients were included if they had a unilateral SCFE and a contralateral asynchronous SCFE, and were divided into immature (Oxford triradiate score 1) versus more mature (Oxford triradiate score 2 and 3) groups. Data evaluation included age, time between slips, body mass index, Southwick angles of first then second SCFEs, and follow-up duration. RESULTS: There were a total of 45 patients: 16 patients in the skeletally immature and 29 patients in the more mature group. Average age at first SCFE in immature patients was 10.9 years and in more mature patients 12.1 years (P=0.70). Age at second SCFE in immature patients was 11.5 years and in more mature patients 13.0 years (P=0.023). Average time between SCFEs was 6.6 months for immature and 11.4 months for more mature patients (P=0.093). Southwick angles for immature patient first and second SCFEs were 25 and 12.9 degrees, respectively, and for more mature patient first and second SCFEs were 31 and 21 degrees, respectively. Southwick angles were higher at first and second slips in the more mature group, significant only at the second slip (P=0.032). SCFE severity at initial event was predictive of severity of second SCFE regardless of maturity (P=0.043). Regression analysis of slip severity against multiple patient factors demonstrated triradiate score was not a factor assessing subsequent SCFE magnitude (P=0.099). CONCLUSIONS: There was no significant difference between first and second SCFEs regardless of skeletal maturity but severity of initial SCFE did correlate with severity of the second SCFE. Deciding not to prophylactically pin an unaffected hip does not lead to worse deformity if a second SCFE occurs in skeletally immature or more mature patients, unless the initial event is severe. Prophylactic pin fixation in skeletally immature patients should occur as a shared decision between patient, guardians, and treating surgeon. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III-retrospective comparative study.

Utility of Postoperative Antibiotics After Percutaneous Pinning of Pediatric Supracondylar Humerus Fractures.

BACKGROUND: Pediatric supracondylar humerus fractures are common injuries that are often treated surgically with closed reduction and percutaneous pinning. Although surgical-site infections are rare, postoperative antibiotics are frequently administered without evidence or guidelines for their use. With the increasing prevalence of antibiotic-resistant organisms and heightened focus on health care costs, appropriate and evidence-based use of antibiotics is needed. We hypothesized that postoperative antibiotic administration would not decrease the rate of surgical-site infection. METHODS: A billing query identified 951 patients with operatively treated supracondylar humerus fractures at our institution over a 15-year period. Records were reviewed for demographic data, perioperative antibiotic use, and the presence of surgical-site infection. Exclusion criteria were open fractures, open reduction, pathologic fractures, metabolic bone disease, the presence of other injuries that required operative treatment, and follow-up <2 weeks after pin removal. χ and Fisher exact test were used to compare antibiotic use to the incidence of surgical-site infection. RESULTS: Six hundred eighteen patients met our inclusion criteria. Two hundred thirty-eight patients (38.5%) received postoperative antibiotics. Eleven surgical-site infections were identified for an overall rate of 1.8%. The use of postoperative antibiotics was not associated with a lower rate of surgical-site infection (P=0.883). Patients with a type III fracture (P<0.001), diminished preoperative vascular (P=0.001) and neurological status (P=0.019), and postoperative hospital admission (P<0.001) were significantly more likely to receive postoperative antibiotics. CONCLUSIONS: Administration of postoperative antibiotics after closed reduction and percutaneous pinning of pediatric supracondylar humerus fractures does not decrease the rate of surgical-site infection. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III-therapeutic.

Comparison of Effective Dose of Radiation During Pedicle Screw Placement Using Intraoperative Computed Tomography Navigation Versus Fluoroscopy in Children With Spinal Deformities.

BACKGROUND: We compared the effective dose of radiation associated with pedicle screw placement in posterior spinal fusion in children using intraoperative computed tomography (CT) navigation versus intraoperative fluoroscopy (C-arm). METHODS: In this review of posterior spinal fusion patients, height, weight, local density function, dose area product, body region, number of views, and part of the body were used to calculate the effective dose to the patient in millisieverts (mSv) in 37 children in whom pedicle screw placement was aided by intraoperative CT versus 44 children in whom pedicle screw placement was aided by C-arm. Both groups had posterior spinal fusions during the same time period by 3 surgeons between November 2012 and August 2013. Calculation of the radiation dose was made by the following method: for the C-arm, and the fluoroscopic/digital acquisitions part of the CT examinations, we estimated the effective dose using the program PCXMC 2.0. For the cross-sectional imaging part of the CT examinations, we used the dose-length product from the radiation dose reports of the CT unit and published dose-length product to effective dose conversion factors. The overall effective dose for the CT group was the total of the cross-sectional imaging dose and the fluoroscopic/digital acquisition imaging dose. An unpaired T test was used to determine significant difference between the C-arm and CT navigation groups. RESULTS: The average effective dose was 1.48±1.66 mSv for the CT patients and 0.34±0.36 mSv for the C-arm patients. These values for the 2 groups are significantly different (P=0.0012). Obese children had very high mSv values in the CT group. CONCLUSIONS: Intraoperative CT for navigational instrumentation placement associated with spinal fusion in children results in significantly more radiation to the child than C-arm. Families need to be counseled about radiation exposure associated with intraoperative CT, especially in obese children. Intraoperative CT use should be tailored to placing instrumentation where the benefit is the highest. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level II.

Vitamin D Deficiency in Children Undergoing Vertical Expandable Prosthetic Titanium Rib Treatment.

BACKGROUND: Vitamin D deficiency is prevalent in the pediatric population and multiple risk factors have been identified. Low vitamin D levels can result in poor bone mineralization and have been associated with a significantly higher risk of forearm fracture in children. Vitamin D deficiency has also been associated with pediatric critical illness. The purpose of this study was to determine whether children undergoing vertical expandable prosthetic titanium rib (VEPTR) treatment have low vitamin D levels. METHODS: Patients undergoing VEPTR treatment at a single institution were prospectively enrolled (VEPTR). All patients either had a diagnosis of thoracic insufficiency syndrome (TIS), or were at risk of developing TIS secondary to progressive scoliosis or chest wall deformity. Exclusion criteria were patients with rickets and patients receiving vitamin D supplementation at the time of VEPTR insertion. A group of healthy children who presented with fractures during the winter season were used as controls (FX). Vitamin D status and risk factors for vitamin D deficiency were evaluated. Vitamin D deficiency was defined as serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25-OH-D) <20 ng/mL and vitamin D insufficiency as serum 25-OH-D between 20 and 29 ng/mL. RESULTS: Twenty-eight VEPTR and 25 FX patients were compared. The average age was 8.6 years in the VEPTR group and 9.1 years in the FX group. Twenty VEPTR patients (71%) and 19 FX patients (76%) demonstrated low vitamin D levels. The average 25-OH-D level was 27.3 ng/mL in the VEPTR group and 25.4 ng/mL in the FX group. Patient characteristics and vitamin D levels were similar between the groups. No association was found between vitamin D status and sex, race, obesity, or multivitamin use. CONCLUSIONS: Low vitamin D levels are common in children undergoing VEPTR treatment. In our series, the prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in this patient population was similar to reported rates in the general pediatric population. Vitamin D status should be routinely monitored in children undergoing VEPTR treatment and supplementation should be initiated if necessary.

Outcomes following removal of instrumentation after posterior spinal fusion.

BACKGROUND: Although there is good evidence to support the removal of instrumentation for infection following posterior spine fusion, there are few studies that report outcomes following removal for late operative site pain. The purpose of this study was 3-fold: (1) to determine whether removal of instrumentation following posterior spinal fusion resolves preoperative pain, (2) to determine whether indolent infection not detected before removal of instrumentation is related to late operative site pain, and (3) to determine whether curve progression differs when spinal hardware is removed for infection versus late operative site pain. METHODS: A retrospective study of consecutive patients aged 10 to 21 years, who underwent removal of instrumentation after posterior spinal fusion over a 10-year-period was conducted. Patient demographics, preoperative and postoperative imaging results, laboratory studies, and operative findings were reviewed. All patients had a minimum 2-year follow-up. Statistical analysis was performed using 2-sample t test, bivariate analysis, and multivariate logistic regression models. RESULTS: Seventy-five patients were included. Indications for removal of spinal instrumentation were pain (57%), infection (28%), hardware failure (8%), and prominent hardware (7%). The mean time from index procedure to hardware removal was 2.8 years. The average loss of curve correction following complete hardware removal was 23.1 degrees. Patients who underwent removal of hardware because of infection had bigger changes in their curves than those without infection (mean, 33.8 degrees vs. 18.8 degrees). Of the 43 patients with pain, only 40% reported relief of their symptoms following removal of hardware. Sixteen of the 43 patients were found to have indolent infection confirmed by positive intraoperative culture results. CONCLUSIONS: Patients should be cautioned that hardware removal after posterior spinal fusion may not provide complete pain relief. Furthermore, there is risk for curve progression following removal of instrumentation, particularly in the setting of infection. Back pain may be an indicator of infection, and intraoperative cultures should be taken at the time of implant removal. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level IV; retrospective case series.

Postoperative spine and VEPTR infections in children: a case-control study.

BACKGROUND: Surgical site infection (SSI) after pediatric scoliosis surgery is a major cause of morbidity. We compared the odds ratios of various potential risk factors for infection among patients who developed a deep SSI following spinal deformity surgery and those who remained infection free. METHODS: This was a case-control study, not a matched study. More noninfection cases (50) than infection cases (20) were selected because more were available. Twenty children with a deep SSI after scoliosis surgery were compared with 50 similar children who did not develop a deep SSI. Fourteen perioperative factors were examined in both the groups. RESULTS: Of the 20 patients who had a deep SSI, 14 had neuromuscular scoliosis. In the infected group, 6 patients had undergone vertical expandable prosthetic titanium rib placement, 2 had undergone growing rod insertion, and 12 had undergone posterior spinal fusion. Eighteen patients developed a SSI within 1 year of the operation and 2 patients presented with a SSI >1 year after surgery. Sixteen patients had positive cultures. Majority were skin flora: coagulase-negative Staphylococcus (8) and Propionibacterium acnes (4). Both patients with tracheostomies had Enterococcus faecalis infections. When comparing the 20 patients with deep SSI to the 50 controls, increased preoperative Cobb angle (P=0.011), increased postoperative Cobb angle (P=0.0043), nonambulatory status (P=0.0002), and increased length of stay (P=0.015) were associated with significantly increased odds of infection. CONCLUSIONS: Our study shows that patients with neuromuscular scoliosis are at higher risk of developing a deep SSI after spinal deformity surgery. Skin flora is a common cause of deep SSI. We have now instituted a standard skin preparation protocol to include alcohol and chlorhexidine washes the night before and the morning of surgery. We have altered our prophylactic antibiotic regimen to cover skin flora in all patients and gastrointestinal flora in patients with a tracheostomy. We have counseled the families of nonambulatory children with large neuromuscular curves regarding the significantly increased odds of postoperative deep SSI. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III.

Osteochondromas after radiation for pediatric malignancies: a role for expanded counseling for skeletal side effects.

BACKGROUND: A relationship has been reported between total body irradiation (TBI) and later development of osteochondromas in children who receive radiation therapy as conditioning before hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). The goal of this study was to better characterize osteochondromas occurring in these children. METHODS: We identified all children (0 to 18 y) who received an allogeneic HSCT and TBI from 2000 to 2012 from a blood and marrow transplant (BMT) database. Thereafter, we identified those who developed osteochondromas through a chart review. In addition, we searched for diagnosis and operative codes from 1996 to 2012 in our pediatric orthopaedic clinical records, isolating osteochondroma patients with a history of radiation exposure. RESULTS: Four patients who underwent allogeneic HSCT and were later diagnosed with osteochondromas were identified from the BMT database (N=233 children); all 4 were among a group of 72 patients who received TBI. Three patients were identified from orthopaedic records. The cohort included 5 boys and 2 girls with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (N=5) or neuroblastoma (N=2), diagnosed at a median age of 2.0 years. Therapy for all patients included chemotherapy, radiation therapy (TBI, N=5; abdominal, N=2), and HSCT. A diagnosis of osteochondroma was made at a median age of 11.7 years (range, 5 to 16 y), on average 8.6 years after radiation therapy. Diagnosis was incidental in 2 patients and secondary to symptoms (pain or genu valgum) in 5. Locations of osteochondromas were the proximal tibia (N=3), distal tibia, distal femur, distal ulna, and the distal phalanx (N=1 each). Three patients underwent surgical resection. CONCLUSIONS: Children may be more likely to develop osteochondromas after early exposure to radiation therapy, which may cause pain and require surgical resection. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first reported case of a radiation-induced osteochondroma causing lower extremity malalignment. Patients typically present to the pediatric orthopaedist's attention when symptomatic, but there may be an expanded role for counseling for potential for long-term skeletal effects in this group. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level IV, case series.