Immunoglobulin with High-Titer In Vitro Cross-Neutralizing Hepatitis C Virus Antibodies Passively Protects Chimpanzees from Homologous, but Not Heterologous, Challenge.

The importance of neutralizing antibodies (NAbs) in protection against hepatitis C virus (HCV) remains controversial. We infused a chimpanzee with H06 immunoglobulin from a genotype 1a HCV-infected patient and challenged with genotype strains efficiently neutralized by H06 in vitro. Genotype 1a NAbs afforded no protection against genotype 4a or 5a. Protection against homologous 1a lasted 18 weeks, but infection emerged when NAb titers waned. However, 6a infection was prevented. The differential in vivo neutralization patterns have implications for HCV vaccine development.

Cross-species infections of cultured cells by hepatitis E virus and discovery of an infectious virus-host recombinant.

The RNA virus, hepatitis E virus (HEV) is the most or second-most important cause of acute clinical hepatitis in adults throughout much of Asia, the Middle East, and Africa. In these regions it is an important cause of acute liver failure, especially in pregnant women who have a mortality rate of 20-30%. Until recently, hepatitis E was rarely identified in industrialized countries, but Hepatitis E now is reported increasingly throughout Western Europe, some Eastern European countries, and Japan. Most of these cases are caused by genotype 3, which is endemic in swine, and these cases are thought to be zoonotically acquired. However, transmission routes are not well understood. HEV that infect humans are divided into nonzoonotic (types 1, 2) and zoonotic (types 3, 4) genotypes. HEV cell culture is inefficient and limited, and thus far HEV has been cultured only in human cell lines. The HEV strain Kernow-C1 (genotype 3) isolated from a chronically infected patient was used to identify human, pig, and deer cell lines permissive for infection. Cross-species infections by genotypes 1 and 3 were studied with this set of cultures. Adaptation of the Kernow-C1 strain to growth in human hepatoma cells selected for a rare virus recombinant that contained an insertion of 174 ribonucleotides (58 amino acids) of a human ribosomal protein gene.

Reproduction in vitro of a quasispecies from a hepatitis C virus-infected patient and determination of factors that influence selection of a dominant species.

Hepatitis C virus infections proceed to chronicity in the majority of cases. In patients, hepatitis C viruses exist as a dynamic and complex quasispecies. The dominant species at any one time arises in response to host immune pressure and other, incompletely understood factors. It is critical to understand all the mechanisms by which dominance is achieved, but this is difficult to study in vivo. Therefore, it would be useful to develop a cell culture system in which naturally occurring quasispecies could be studied. Hepatitis C virus glycoprotein genes E1 and E2 were PCR amplified as a cassette from the plasma of a chronically infected patient and shotgun cloned into a modified 1a/JFH1 infectious cDNA clone. Following transformation of bacteria, plasmids were batch harvested, transcribed, and transfected into Huh7.5 cells to produce a quasispecies of hypervariable region 1 (HVR1) that mimicked that circulating in vivo. Serial passage of the quasispecies in vitro resulted in replacement of the initially dominant species with a new HVR1 species coexisting with selected growth-enhancing mutations located outside HVR1. Antibody raised against one HVR1 sequence neutralized virus with the homologous HVR1 and cross-neutralized virus with a different sequence. Reciprocal swapping of the HVR1 regions between the two dominating species demonstrated that the HVR1 sequence affects the efficiency of replication and of neutralization by anti-HVR1 but that both processes are strongly influenced by regions outside HVR1.

Advantages of a single-cycle production assay to study cell culture-adaptive mutations of hepatitis C virus.

The JFH1 strain of hepatitis C virus (HCV) is unique among HCV isolates, in that the wild-type virus can traverse the entire replication cycle in cultured cells. However, without adaptive mutations, only low levels of infectious virus are produced. In the present study, the effects of five mutations that were selected during serial passage in Huh-7.5 cells were studied. Recombinant genomes containing all five mutations produced 3-4 logs more infectious virions than did wild type. Neither a coding mutation in NS5A nor a silent mutation in E2 was adaptive, whereas coding mutations in E2, p7, and NS2 all increased virus production. A single-cycle replication assay in CD81-deficient cells was developed to study more precisely the effect of the adaptive mutations. The E2 mutation had minimal effect on the amount of infectious virus released but probably enhanced entry into cells. In contrast, both the p7 and NS2 mutations independently increased the amount of virus released.

Molecular evolution of GB virus B hepatitis virus during acute resolving and persistent infections in experimentally infected tamarins.

GB virus B (GBV-B) causes acute hepatitis in experimentally infected tamarins. We compared evolutionary features in acute resolving and persistent GBV-B infection. We detected no evidence of evolution in four animals with clearance during weeks 9-12, whereas three animals with clearance during weeks 13-26 had several substitutions in their polyprotein sequence. A single tamarin had long-term GBV-B viraemia; analysis of virus recovered at weeks 2, 5, 12, 20, 26, 52 and 104 demonstrated that mutations accumulated over time. Overall, the amino acid substitution rate was 3.5x10(-3) and 1.1x10(-3) substitutions per site year(-1) during weeks 1-52 and 53-104, respectively. Thus, there was a significant decrease in evolution over time, as found for hepatitis C virus. The rate of non-synonymous substitution per non-synonymous site compared with that of synonymous substitution per synonymous site decreased over time, suggesting reduction of positive selective pressure. These data demonstrate that prolonged GBV-B infection is associated with viral evolution.

The entire core protein of HCV JFH1 is required for efficient formation of infectious JFH1 pseudoparticles.

The vast majority of hepatitis C virus (HCV) strains cannot be grown in cell culture. Therefore, tests for neutralizing antibodies have relied heavily on retrovirus pseudoparticles displaying the envelope glycoproteins of HCV on their surface (HCVpp). Unfortunately, the envelope proteins of some strains, especially of JFH1, did not efficiently form functional HCVpp. We have manipulated the length and composition of the HCV core gene in the HCVpp expression vectors for three strains of HCV in an attempt to obtain more efficient production of pseudoparticles. The results demonstrated that the truncated core region included in the HCV expression plasmids of the classic pseudoparticle system was optimal for formation of strain H77pp, suboptimal for strain J6pp, and insufficient for strain JFH1pp. Efficiency of JFH1pp formation increased 20-fold when the truncated core gene was replaced with the entire core gene. The full core from J6 and HK had modest effect on the production of infectious J6 and HKpp. The data suggested that pairs of HCV glycoproteins differ inherently in their ability to associate into functional heterodimers and that the core protein, provided in cis as the beginning of the polyprotein product, can in some cases facilitate this process, possibly by increasing the rate of proper folding of the glycoproteins.

Apolipoprotein c1 association with hepatitis C virus.

Accumulating evidence suggests that cellular lipoprotein components are involved in hepatitis C virus (HCV) morphogenesis, but the precise contribution of these components remains unclear. We investigated the involvement of apolipoprotein C1 (ApoC1) in HCV infection in the HCV pseudotyped particle system (HCVpp), in the recently developed cell culture infection model (HCVcc), and in authentic HCV isolated from viremic chimpanzees. Viral genomes associated with HCVcc or authentic HCV were efficiently immunoprecipitated by anti-ApoC1, demonstrating that ApoC1 was a normal component of HCV. The infectivities of HCVpp that had been mixed with ApoC1 and, more importantly, untreated HCVcc collected from lysates or media of infected Huh7.5 cells were directly neutralized by anti-ApoC1. Indeed, convalescent anti-HCV immunoglobulin G and anti-ApoC1 each neutralized over 75% of infectious HCVcc particles, indicating that many, if not all, infectious particles were recognized by both antibodies. Moreover, peptides corresponding to the C-terminal region of ApoC1 blocked infectivity of both HCVpp and HCVcc. Altogether, these results suggest that ApoC1 associates intracellularly via its C-terminal region with surface components of virions during viral morphogenesis and may play a major role in the replication cycle of HCV.

Previously infected chimpanzees are not consistently protected against reinfection or persistent infection after reexposure to the identical hepatitis C virus strain.

Protective immunity after resolved hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection has been reported. However, the breadth of this immunity has remained controversial, and the role of neutralizing antibodies has not been well-defined. In the present study, two chimpanzees (CH96A008 and CH1494) with resolved monoclonal H77C (genotype 1a) infection were rechallenged with low-dose homologous H77C virus about 12 months after viral clearance; CH96A008 became persistently infected, and CH1494 had transient viremia lasting 2 weeks. CH1494 was subsequently either partially or completely protected following five homologous rechallenges with monoclonal H77C or polyclonal H77 and after six heterologous rechallenges with HC-J4 (genotype 1b) or HC-J6 (genotype 2a) viruses. Subsequently, a final challenge with H77C resulted in persistent HCV infection. In both chimpanzees, serum neutralizing antibodies against retroviral pseudoparticles bearing the H77C envelope proteins were not detected during the initial infection or during rechallenge. However, anamnestic cellular immune responses developed during the initial homologous rechallenge, in particular in CH96A008, which developed a persistent infection. Polyprotein sequences of viruses recovered from CH1494 after the two homologous rechallenges that resulted in transient viremia were identical with the H77C virus. In contrast, the polyprotein sequences of viruses recovered from both chimpanzees after homologous rechallenge resulting in persistent infection had numerous changes. These findings have important implications for our understanding of immunity against HCV; even in the best-case scenario with autologous rechallenge, low-level viral persistence was seen in the presence of primed T-cell responses.

Isolation and characterization of broadly neutralizing human monoclonal antibodies to the e1 glycoprotein of hepatitis C virus.

The relative importance of humoral and cellular immunity in the prevention or clearance of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is poorly understood. However, there is considerable evidence that neutralizing antibodies are involved in disease control. Here we describe the detailed analysis of human monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) directed against HCV glycoprotein E1, which may have the potential to control HCV infection. We have identified two MAbs that can strongly neutralize HCV-pseudotyped particles (HCVpp) bearing the envelope glycoproteins of genotypes 1a, 1b, 4a, 5a, and 6a and less strongly neutralize HCVpp bearing the envelope glycoproteins of genotype 2a. Genotype 3a was not neutralized. The epitopes for both MAbs were mapped to the region encompassing amino acids 313 to 327. In addition, robust neutralization was also observed against cell culture-adapted viruses of genotypes 1a and 2a. Results from this study suggest that these MAbs may have the potential to prevent HCV infection.

Evidence for cross-genotype neutralization of hepatitis C virus pseudo-particles and enhancement of infectivity by apolipoprotein C1.

The lack of a cell culture system to support hepatitis C virus (HCV) replication has hampered studies of this frequent cause of chronic liver disease. However, pseudotyped retroviral particles (pp) bearing the HCV envelope glycoproteins have provided a different approach to HCV studies. We used genotype 1a pp to detect neutralizing antibodies (NtAb) in eight chimpanzees and four humans infected with 1a strains, and developed pp of genotypes 2a, 3a, 4a, 5a, and 6a to study crossreactivity. NtAb was detected in one of four chimpanzees and none of three humans with acute resolving infection, suggesting that NtAb is not required for HCV clearance. NtAb were detected at high titer in two of four chimpanzees and, in Patient H, all with persistent infection; responses paralleled humoral responses to envelope 1 and 2 proteins and, in some cases, correlate also with antibodies to the hypervariable region 1, previously thought to be the primary site of neutralization. NtAb raised during 1a infections could neutralize HCVpp of genotypes 4a, 5a, and 6a but had only limited reactivity against 2a and 3a. The detection of high-titer NtAb with cross-genotype reactivity has important implications for the development of active and passive immune-prophylaxis strategies against HCV. Finally, we found that HCVpp infectivity was enhanced by human or chimpanzee sera; apolipoprotein C1 alone or as a component of high-density lipoproteins caused this enhancement. Future studies of the in vivo role of apolipoprotein C1 might provide additional insights into the infection process of HCV.

In vivo analysis of the 3' untranslated region of GB virus B after in vitro mutagenesis of an infectious cDNA clone: persistent infection in a transfected tamarin.

GB virus B (GBV-B), the virus most closely related to hepatitis C virus (HCV), infects tamarins and causes acute hepatitis. The 3' untranslated region (UTR) of an infectious GBV-B clone (pGBB) has a proximal short sequence followed by a poly(U) tract and a 3' terminal sequence. Our investigators previously demonstrated that the 3' terminal sequence was critical for in vivo infectivity. Here, we tested the effect of deleting the short sequence and/or the poly(U) tract from pGBB; infectivity of each mutant was tested by intrahepatic transfection of two tamarins with transcribed RNA. A mutant lacking both regions was not viable. However, mutants lacking either the short sequence or the poly(U) tract were viable. All four tamarins had a wild-type-like acute infection and developed acute hepatitis. Whereas we found that five tamarins transfected with the wild-type clone pGBB had acute resolving infection, one tamarin transfected with the poly(U) deletion mutant became persistently infected. This animal had viremia and hepatitis until its death at week 90. The genomes recovered at weeks 2, 7, 15, 20, 60, and 90 lacked the poly(U) stretch. Eight amino acid changes were identified at week 90. One change, in the putative p7 protein, was dominant at week 15. Thus, persistence of GBV-B, like persistence of HCV, was associated with the emergence of virus variants. Four tamarins inoculated with serum collected at weeks 2 and 90 from the tamarin with persistent infection had an acute resolving infection. Nonetheless, the demonstration that GBV-B can persist in tamarins strengthens its relevance as a surrogate model for the study of HCV.

The p7 polypeptide of hepatitis C virus is critical for infectivity and contains functionally important genotype-specific sequences.

The role of the hepatitis C virus (HCV) p7 protein in the virus life cycle is not known. Previous in vitro data indicated that this 63-aa polypeptide is located in the endoplasmic reticulum and has two transmembrane domains (TMDs) connected by a cytoplasmic loop; the amino- and carboxyl-terminal tails are oriented toward the endoplasmic reticulum lumen. Furthermore, recent in vitro studies suggested that HCV p7 could function as a virus-encoded ion channel. It might therefore be a relevant target for future drug development. We studied the role of HCV p7 in vivo. Because HCV does not replicate efficiently in cell culture, we mutagenized p7 of an infectious genotype 1a cDNA clone and tested RNA transcripts of each mutant for infectivity in chimpanzees by intrahepatic transfection. Appropriate processing of mutant polypeptides was confirmed by studies in transfected mammalian cells. Mutants with deletions of all or part of p7 and a mutant with substitutions of two conserved residues in the cytoplasmic loop were not viable. Thus, p7 is essential for infectivity of HCV. A chimera in which the p7 of the 1a clone was replaced with p7 from an infectious genotype 2a clone also was not viable. This finding suggests a genotype-specific interaction between p7 and other genomic regions. To define which portions of p7 played the most significant role for this interaction, we tested three chimeras with the 1a backbone in which only specific domains of p7 had the 2a sequence. A p7 chimera with 2a tails and TMDs and the 1a cytoplasmic loop was not viable. A mutant with 2a tails and cytoplasmic loop and 1a TMDs also was not viable. However, a p7 chimera with 2a TMDs and cytoplasmic loop and 1a tails was viable. The transfected chimpanzee became viremic at week 2, and recovered viruses had the chimeric sequence. These data indicate that the amino- and/or carboxyl-terminal intraluminal tails of p7 contain sequences with genotype-specific function.

Mutations that permit efficient replication of hepatitis C virus RNA in Huh-7 cells prevent productive replication in chimpanzees.

The development of a subgenomic replicon derived from the hepatitis C virus (HCV) strain Con1 enabled the study of viral RNA replication in Huh-7 cells. The level of replication of replicons, as well as full-length Con1 genomes, increased significantly by a combination of two adaptive mutations in NS3 (E1202G and T1280I) and a single mutation in NS5A (S2197P). However, these cell culture-adaptive mutations influenced in vivo infectivity. After intrahepatic transfection of chimpanzees, the wild-type Con1 genome was infectious and produced viral titers similar to those produced by other infectious HCV clones. Repeated independent transfections with RNA transcripts of a Con1 genome containing the three adaptive mutations failed to achieve active HCV infection. Furthermore, although a chimpanzee transfected with RNA transcripts of a Con1 genome with only the NS5A mutation became infected, this mutation was detected only in virus genomes recovered from serum at day 4; viruses recovered at day 7 had a reversion back to the original Con1 sequence. Our study demonstrates that mutations that are adaptive for replication of HCV in cell culture may be highly attenuating in vivo.