Sleep should not be this difficult: An interpretive descriptive study of older adults' perspectives on behaviour change elements in Sleepwell and experiences with benzodiazepine discontinuation.

Benzodiazepine receptor agonists are often used for insomnia in older adults contrary to current evidence. The harms outweigh the benefits, which are limited. Cognitive behavioural therapy for insomnia is the first-line recommended treatment. Sleepwell was created as a repository of evidence-based resources to promote cognitive behavioural therapy for insomnia and limit benzodiazepine receptor agonist use. This qualitative study uses an interpretive description design and reflexive thematic analysis to explore older adults' perspectives on behavioural change techniques used in Sleepwell resources. It also explores challenges and opportunities towards benzodiazepine receptor agonist discontinuation and cognitive behavioural therapy for insomnia use. Participants were recruited from the Sleepwell arm of a randomized controlled trial. Data were collected from 15 older adults using semi-structured interviews. Two main themes were developed: (1) sleep should not be this difficult; and (2) whether you know it, or learn it, drugs are bad. Two sub-themes were created within the first theme: (1) justification of benzodiazepine receptor agonist use to achieve sleep goals; (2) efforts of committing to cognitive behavioural therapy for insomnia. Several behavioural change techniques (e.g. information about consequences, anticipated regret, salience of consequences) were enablers of benzodiazepine receptor agonist-related behaviour change. For committing to cognitive behavioural therapy for insomnia, several behavioural change techniques (e.g. self-monitoring of behaviour, distraction, stimulus substitution) were beneficial, but social support, which was perceived as useful, was absent. Older adults experienced tension with benzodiazepine receptor agonist use and deprescribing, despite knowing or learning the potential consequences of benzodiazepine receptor agonists. Cognitive behavioural therapy for insomnia implementation was challenging. Embedded behavioural change techniques in the Sleepwell booklets were identified as helpful, but more (e.g. social support) are needed to optimize cognitive behavioural therapy for insomnia use.

Educating Residents About Cannabis: Results of a Needs Assessment.

OBJECTIVE: Cannabis use by people receiving mental health services is increasingly common, yet many psychiatrists have limited knowledge about the pharmacology of cannabis or its clinical effects. Though clearly relevant to residency training, there is little information on unmet needs and current teaching practices to guide educators who wish to develop a cannabis curriculum. To address this, the authors interviewed key informants and surveyed Canadian psychiatry program directors and residents about cannabis education seeking to determine appropriate content and approaches to inform curriculum development. METHODS: The authors conducted semi-structured interviews with 7 experts in addictions and psychiatry education. Findings were then used to develop a needs assessment survey about cannabinoid teaching in residency education. Residents and program directors from psychiatry training programs in Canada were invited to complete the online survey. RESULTS: Key informants believed residents are not adequately prepared to manage substance use disorders and recommended additional training be dedicated to cannabinoid education, including cannabis use disorder. Seven program directors and 27 residents completing the survey made recommendations for curriculum content and design. Pharmacology, neurobiology, and managing cannabis use disorders were identified as the most important topics for inclusion. A majority of respondents rated 5 of 8 proposed learning objectives as not supported by existing curriculum and supported an integration of key topics across training years. CONCLUSIONS: Respondents identified an urgent need for programs to offer an integrated cannabis curriculum. As cannabis use increases internationally, these findings may be useful to inform curriculum development in other countries.

Pharmacists' experiences with the Bloom Program application process.

BACKGROUND: The Bloom Program, which began as a demonstration project, is an ongoing community pharmacy-based mental illness and addictions program funded by the government of Nova Scotia. To be eligible to offer the Bloom Program, interested pharmacists were required to complete a 9-part application on behalf of their pharmacies. A process evaluation was conducted to inform future program implementation changes of program components, including the application process. METHODS: Qualitative interviews from 24 pharmacists were inductively analyzed to determine the challenges and opportunities in the program's application process. RESULTS: Key and impactful components of the application process included training, providing a mental health and addictions resource centre within the pharmacy and completing outreach activities with local mental health and addictions services and support organizations. The training content and format for the program was highly valued. Community outreach to local mental health and addictions resources, and other health care resources in the community, was particularly valuable in supporting patient navigation of the health care system and extending the pharmacists' networks. Components of the application process were challenging for many pharmacists but were beneficial personally and professionally. Dedicated resources (e.g., time and staffing) are required for the efficient completion of the application process. CONCLUSION: Pharmacists viewed the Bloom Program application process as intensive yet necessary and relevant for preparing to deliver the Program. The demonstration project process evaluation was essential for elucidating the strengths of the application process and, importantly, identifying areas for improvement. Can Pharm J (Ott) 2021;154:xx-xx.

Content validation of a questionnaire measuring basic perinatal depression knowledge.

Perinatal depression (PND) screening is encouraged in healthcare settings. We aimed to develop and content validate a basic PND knowledge questionnaire for use among pharmacists and potentially other primary healthcare professionals (HCPs). A six-item questionnaire was developed. Twenty-five perinatal mental health experts were invited to participate in content validation by completing the questionnaire and assessing its content validity. A content validity index (CVI) score above 0.8 was indicative of content validity. Expert comments may inform items' deletion or revision. Between November 2016 and February 2017, ten experts participated. For five out of six items, the CVI score was 0.9 or 1.0. Two experts selected "I think none are correct" for one item regarding the onset of postpartum depression. Comments reflected the lack of consensus in the literature surrounding onset periods and prevalence rates and informed minor modifications to three of six questions and seven of 24 response options. The CVI for the questionnaire was 0.83.Content validation of a questionnaire measuring basic PND knowledge resulted in modifications. Comments about PND onset and prevalence indicated the need for consistency when defining and measuring these constructs. This questionnaire may be used among pharmacists and other HCPs.

The patient experience in a community pharmacy mental illness and addictions program.

BACKGROUND: The Bloom Program was designed to enhance pharmacists' care of people with lived experience of mental illness and addictions in Nova Scotia. The Program's demonstration period was from September 2014 to December 2016 and included a qualitative evaluation of the patient experience. METHODS: Patients were recruited for individual interviews through Bloom Program pharmacies. Interviews were transcribed verbatim and analyzed following Braun and Clarke's 6-step approach for thematic analysis. RESULTS: Ten patients were interviewed between May and June 2016. Ten themes were determined through data analysis and included medication management, accessing pharmacists in a new way, providing social support, bridging service gaps, providing interim care, reducing financial barriers, navigation and advocacy, holistic approaches, empowerment through knowledge and awareness and collaboration. DISCUSSION: Pharmacists expectedly provided medication management activities to patients for both physical and mental health concerns in the Bloom Program. Many activities conducted with Bloom Program patients fell outside of dispensing roles and medication management. These activities, such as social support, triage, navigation and increasing access, which were highly valued by patients, are poorly measured and assessed in pharmacy practice research. CONCLUSION: Participants in the Bloom Program reported the significant contributions of pharmacists and pharmacy teams in their overall health and wellness. Future evaluations of interventions like the Bloom Program should include measurement of constructs valued by patients and also consider impacts on inequalities and inequities. Pharmacy practice researchers can benefit from other research and evaluation being conducted for primary care interventions.

Patient care activities by community pharmacists in a capitation funding model mental health and addictions program.

BACKGROUND: Community pharmacists are autonomous, regulated health care professionals located in urban and rural communities in Canada. The accessibility, knowledge, and skills of community pharmacists can be leveraged to increase mental illness and addictions care in communities. METHODS: The Bloom Program was designed, developed, and implemented based on the Behaviour Change Wheel and a program of research in community pharmacy mental healthcare capacity building. We evaluated the Bloom Program as a demonstration project using mixed methods. A retrospective chart audit was conducted to examine outcomes and these are reported in this paper. RESULTS: We collected 201 patient charts from 23 pharmacies in Nova Scotia with 182 patients having at least one or more follow-up visits. Anxiety (n = 126, 69%), depression (n = 112, 62%), and sleep disorders (n = 64, 35%) were the most frequent mental health problems. Comorbid physical health problems were documented in 57% (n = 104). The average number of prescribed medications was 5.5 (range 0 to 24). Sixty seven percent (n = 122) were taking multiple psychotropics and 71% (n = 130) reported taking more than one medication for physical health problems. Treatment optimization was the leading reason for enrollment with more than 80% seeking improvements in symptom management and daily functioning. There were a total of 1233 patient-care meetings documented, of which the duration was recorded in 1098. The median time for enrolling, assessing, and providing follow-up care by pharmacists was 142 min (mean 176, SD 128) per patient. The median follow-up encounter duration was 15 min. A total of 146 patient care encounters were 60 min or longer, representing 13.3% of all timed encounters. CONCLUSIONS: Pharmacists work with patients with lived experience of mental illness and addictions to improve medication related outcomes including those related to treatment optimization, reducing polytherapy, and facilitating withdrawal from medications. Pharmacists can offer their services frequently and routinely without the need for an appointment while affording patient confidentiality and privacy. Important roles for pharmacists around the deprescribing of various medications (e.g., benzodiazepines) have previously been supported and should be optimized and more broadly implemented. Further research on the best mechanisms to incentivize pharmacists in mental illness and addiction's care should be explored.

Community pharmacists' experiences and people at risk of suicide in Canada and Australia: a thematic analysis.

PURPOSE: To explore Canadian and Australian community pharmacists' practice experiences in caring for people at risk of suicide. METHODS: We conducted a thematic analysis of 176 responses to an open-ended extension question in an online survey. RESULTS: Four themes were identified and include referrals and triage, accessibility for confiding, emotional toll, and stigma. Subthemes included gatekeeping the medication supply, sole disclosure, planning for end of life, concerns of support people, assessing the validity of suicidality, gaps in the system, not directly asking, ill-equipped, resources in the pharmacy, relying on others to continue care, and attention seeking. CONCLUSIONS: Community pharmacists are caring for patients at risk of suicide frequently, and often with patients seeking the help of pharmacists directly. Pharmacists engage in activities and actions that would be considered outside of the traditional dispensing roles and provide support and intervention to people at risk of suicide through collaboration and other mechanisms. Further research to determine appropriate education and training and postvention supports is required.

Antipsychotic Drug Dispensations in Older Adults, Including Continuation After a Fall-Related Hospitalization: Identifying Adherence to Screening Tool of Older Persons' Potentially Inappropriate Prescriptions Criteria Using the Nova Scotia Seniors' Pharmacare Program and Canadian Institute for Health's Discharge Databases.

PURPOSE: Despite well-established concerns regarding adverse drug effects, antipsychotics are frequently prescribed for older adults. Our first objective was to identify trends in antipsychotic dispensations to older Nova Scotians. STOPP (Screening Tool of Older Persons' Potentially Inappropriate Prescriptions) criteria identify antipsychotic use in those with a history of falls as potentially inappropriate. Our second objective was to identify trends, predictors, and adherence with this STOPP criteria by identifying continued antipsychotic dispensations following a fall-related hospitalization. METHODS: A descriptive cross-sectional cohort study of Nova Scotia Seniors' Pharmacare Program (NSSPP) beneficiaries ≥ 66 years with at least one antipsychotic dispensation annually from April 1, 2009 to March 31, 2014 was completed. As well, unique beneficiaries with at least one antipsychotic dispensation in the four-year period between April 1, 2009 and March 31, 2013 were linked to fall-related hospitalizations recorded in the Canadian Institute for Health Information Discharge Abstract Database. The relationship of age, sex, fiscal year, days supply and length-of-stay were studied to identify predictors of continued antipsychotic dispensation post-discharge. Descriptive statistics and multivariate logistic analysis were performed. Odds ratios for the association of risk factors and adherence to STOPP criteria were calculated. FINDINGS: We identified that in each year observed, there were 6% of eligible NSSPP beneficiaries that received at least one antipsychotic dispensation. Approximately 70% of antipsychotic dispensations were for second generation agents, primarily quetiapine and risperidone. Of the unique beneficiaries with at least one antipsychotic dispensation in the four-year period between April 1, 2009 and March 31, 2013 who survived a fall-related hospitalization over 75% were dispensed an antipsychotic in the 100 days following hospital discharge. Logistic regression showed no statistically significant association between potentially inappropriate therapy and potential predictors in multivariate analysis. IMPLICATIONS: In each year from 2009 to 2014, 6% of Nova Scotia Seniors' Pharmacare beneficiaries were dispensed at least one antipsychotic prescription. Over 75% of the older adults who received an antipsychotic dispensation in the 100 days prior to a fall-related hospitalization, continued the drug class after discharge. This demonstrates that despite the recommendations of quality indicators such as the STOPP criteria, antipsychotics are continued in individuals at a high risk of falling. Future investigations are needed to inform health team, system, and policy interventions to improve concordance with this antipsychotic specific STOPP criterion when appropriate.

From personal crisis care to convenience shopping: an interpretive description of the experiences of people with mental illness and addictions in community pharmacies.

BACKGROUND: The role of community pharmacists is changing globally with pharmacists engaging in more clinically-oriented roles, including in mental health care. Pharmacists' interventions have been shown to improve mental health related outcomes but various barriers can limit pharmacists in their care of patients. We aimed to explore the experiences of people with lived experience of mental illness and addictions in community pharmacies to generate findings to inform practice improvements. METHODS: We used interpretive description methodology with analytic procedures of thematic analysis to explore the experiences of people with lived experience of mental illness and addictions with community pharmacy services. Participants were recruited through multiple mechanisms (e.g., paper and online advertisements), offered honorarium for their time, and given the option of a focus group or interview for participation in our study. Data were gathered during July to September of 2012. Interviews and focus groups were audio-recorded, transcribed verbatim, and analyzed by two researchers. RESULTS: We collected approximately nine hours of audio data from 18 individuals in two focus groups (n = 12) and six individual interviews. Fourteen participants were female and the average age was 41 years (range 24 to 57 years). Expectations, decision-making, and supports were identified as central themes underlying the community pharmacy experiences of people with lived experience of mental illness and addictions. Eight subthemes were identified including: relationships with pharmacy staff; patient's role in the pharmacist-patient relationship; crisis and triage; privacy and confidentiality; time; stigma and judgment; medication-related and other services; and transparency. CONCLUSIONS: People with lived experience of mental illness and addictions demonstrate a high regard and respect for pharmacist's knowledge and abilities but hold conservative expectations of pharmacy health services shaped by experience, observations, and assumptions. To some extent, expectation management occurs with the recognition of the demands on pharmacists and constraints inherent to community pharmacy practice. Relationships with pharmacy staff are critical to people with lived experience and influence their decision-making. Research in the area of pharmacists' roles in crises and triage, especially in the area of suicide assessment and mitigation, is needed urgently.

A scoping review of weight bias by community pharmacists towards people with obesity and mental illness.

BACKGROUND: Community pharmacists are accessible health care professionals who are increasingly offering weight management programs. People living with serious mental illness have markedly higher rates of obesity and associated illness outcomes than the general population, providing pharmacists who are interested in offering weight management services with an identifiable patient subgroup with increased health needs. Issues with stigma within obesity and mental illness care are prevalent and can lead to inequities and reduced quality of care. METHODS: We conducted a scoping review to map and characterize the available information from published and grey literature sources regarding community pharmacists and weight bias towards obese people with lived experience of mental illness. A staged approach to the scoping review was used. RESULTS: Six articles and 6 websites were abstracted after we removed duplicates and applied our inclusion and exclusion criteria. The published studies that we found indicated that pharmacists and pharmacy students do demonstrate implicit and explicit weight bias. CONCLUSIONS: Very limited research is available regarding weight bias in pharmacists and stigma towards people with obesity, and we found no information on these phenomena relating to people with lived experience of mental illness. Investigations are needed to characterize the extent and nature of anti-fat bias and attitudes by pharmacists and the consequences of these attitudes for patient care.

Incidence of Oculogyric Crisis and Long-Term Outcomes With Second-Generation Antipsychotics in a First-Episode Psychosis Program.

Oculogyric crisis (OGC) is an often recurrent dystonic adverse effect of antipsychotic treatment characterized by a sustained fixed upward gaze lasting minutes to hours. The risk of OGC has not been established. We prospectively estimated the incidence rate of OGC in an early intervention service for psychosis and provided details regarding the antipsychotics implicated, clinical presentation, and long-term outcomes of OGC. The Nova Scotia Early Psychosis Program provides comprehensive, team-based care to youth and young adults with schizophrenia spectrum disorder. For 6 years (April 2008 to March 2014), 452 new patients were admitted to the program and participated in an individualized program of care. Eight patients (4 females; mean age, 19.8 years) developed recurrent episodes of OGC after 3 months to 2 years of treatment with 1 or more second-generation antipsychotics, yielding an incidence rate of 1.8% (95% confidence interval, 0.9%-3.4%). Risperidone or olanzapine (alone or in combination with a second antipsychotic) seemed causative in each case. Also implicated in the onset or recurrence of oculogyric episodes were ziprasidone, quetiapine, clozapine, aripiprazole, and the first-generation antipsychotic loxapine. Follow-up ranged between 2 and 7 years. Episodes stopped after switching antipsychotic treatment in 4 cases and after stopping antipsychotic treatment in 2 cases. In the other 2 cases, recurrences were ongoing at last follow-up 2 and 6 years after onset with antipsychotic treatment continuing. We observed a high rate of tardive-onset, recurrent, and potentially chronic ocular dystonias in patients with first-episode psychosis caused by the use of second-generation antipsychotics.

Canadian guidelines on pharmacotherapy for disruptive and aggressive behaviour in children and adolescents with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, or conduct disorder.

OBJECTIVE: To develop evidence-based guidelines on pharmacotherapy for severe disruptive and aggressive behaviour in children and adolescents with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), or conduct disorder (CD). The guidelines assume that psychosocial interventions have been pursued but did not achieve sufficient improvement. METHOD: A multidisciplinary consensus group used the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation approach for rating evidence quality and for grading recommendations. We conducted a systematic review of medications studied in placebo-controlled trials for treating disruptive and aggressive behaviour in children and adolescents with ADHD, ODD, or CD. We followed consensus procedures to make 1 of 4 recommendations for each medication: strong, in favour (↑↑); conditional, in favour (↑?); conditional, against (↓?); and strong, against (↓↓). RESULTS: For children and adolescents with disruptive or aggressive behaviour associated with ADHD, psychostimulants received a strong recommendation in favour of use, while atomoxetine and alpha-2 agonists received a conditional recommendation in favour of use. If these patients do poorly with ADHD medications, the medication with the most evidence is risperidone. Risperidone also has the most evidence for treating disruptive or aggressive behaviour in the absence of ADHD. However, given risperidone's major adverse effects, it received only a conditional recommendation in favour of use. We recommended against using quetiapine, haloperidol, lithium, or carbamazepine because of the poor quality of evidence and their major adverse effects. CONCLUSION: When severe disruptive or aggressive behaviour occurs with ADHD, medications for ADHD should be used first. Other medications have major adverse effects and, with the exception of risperidone, very limited evidence to support their use.

Partnering to enhance mental health care capacity in communities: A qualitative study of the More Than Meds program.

BACKGROUND: Community pharmacists care for and support people with lived experience of mental illness in their communities. We developed a program called More Than Meds to facilitate enhancing capacity of community pharmacists' roles in mental health care. METHODS: We conducted a qualitative study and used a directed content analysis with application of the Theoretical Domains Framework as part of our underlying theory of behaviour change and our analytic framework. RESULTS: Ten interviews (n = 6 pharmacists, n = 4 community members) were conducted with participants from the More Than Meds program. Three key themes were identified from the experiences of More Than Meds participants: networking and bridging, stigma, and expectations and permissions. The most frequently coded domains in the data from the Theoretical Domains Framework were social/professional role, skills, beliefs about capabilities, knowledge and environmental context and resources. CONCLUSIONS: The More than Meds Program enabled community pharmacists to increase their capabilities, opportunities and motivation in providing mental health care and support. Involving community pharmacists together with people with lived experience of mental illness was identified as an innovative component of the program.

Prescriber Acceptability of a Direct-to-Patient Intervention for Benzodiazepine Receptor Agonist Deprescribing and Behavioural Management of Insomnia in Older Adults.

Behavioural treatments are recommended first-line for insomnia, but long-term benzodiazepine receptor agonist (BZRA) use remains common and engaging patients in a deprescribing consultation is challenging. Few deprescribing interventions directly target patients. Prescribers' support of patient-targeted interventions may facilitate their uptake. Recently assessed in the Your Answers When Needing Sleep in New Brunswick (YAWNS NB) study, Sleepwell (mysleepwell.ca) was developed as a direct-to-patient behaviour change intervention promoting BZRA deprescribing and non-pharmacological insomnia management. BZRA prescribers of YAWNS NB participants were invited to complete an online survey assessing the acceptability of Sleepwell as a direct-to-patient intervention. The survey was developed using the seven construct components of the theoretical framework of acceptability (TFA) framework. Respondents (40/250, 17.2%) indicated high acceptability, with positive responses per TFA construct averaging 32.3/40 (80.7%). Perceived as an ethical, credible, and useful tool, Sleepwell also promoted prescriber-patient BZRA deprescribing engagements (11/19, 58%). Prescribers were accepting of Sleepwell and supported its application as a direct-to-patient intervention.

Prescribing trends of antipsychotics in youth receiving income assistance: results from a retrospective population database study.

BACKGROUND: Prescribing of antipsychotics (AP) to young people has increased in the last decade internationally. We aimed to characterize AP prescribing in a population of low-income youth in Nova Scotia, Canada. METHODS: We conducted a population database study of AP prescription claims and health services utilization by young people aged 25 years and younger receiving drug benefits through the publicly funded Pharmacare program between October 1, 2000 to September 30, 2007. RESULTS: Four percent (1715/43888) of youth receiving Pharmacare benefits filled AP prescriptions. The use of second generation antipsychotics (SGAs) significantly increased (p < 0.0001) in all age groups except 0-5 year olds, whereas first generation antipsychotic use significantly decreased. Pharmacare beneficiaries aged 21-25 years represented 45.2% of AP users. The majority (66%) of youth filling AP prescriptions had 2 or more psychiatric diagnoses. Most youth (76%) filled prescriptions for only one type of AP during the study period. Psychotic disorders were the most common indication for AP use except with risperidone, in which ADHD was the most likely reason for use. Co-prescribing of psychotropics was prevalent with antidepressants and mood stabilizers prescribed in 42% and 27% of AP users, respectively. General practitioners (GPs) prescribed incident APs most often (72%) followed by psychiatrists (16%). The age- and gender-adjusted rate of death was higher in AP users as compared to the age-matched general population of Nova Scotia. CONCLUSIONS: SGA use increased significantly over seven years in a cohort of 0 to 25 years olds receiving Pharmacare benefits. Off-label use of APs was prevalent with ADHD and other non-psychotic disorders being common reasons for AP use. GPs initiated most AP prescriptions. Co-prescribing of other psychotropics, especially antidepressants and mood stabilizers, was prevalent even in younger age strata. This study raises further questions about AP prescribing in those 25 years of age and under, especially given the range of diagnoses and psychotropic co-prescribing.

Evidence review and clinical guidance for the use of ziprasidone in Canada.

While indicated for schizophrenia and acute mania, ziprasidone's evidence base and use in clinical practice extends beyond these regulatory approvals. We, an invited panel of experts led by a working group of 3, critically examined the evidence and our collective experience regarding the effectiveness, tolerability and safety of ziprasidone across its clinical uses. There was no opportunity for manufacturer input into the content of the review. As anticipated, ziprasidone was found to be effective for its indicated uses, although its utility in mania and mixed states lacked comparative data. Beyond these uses, the available data were either unimpressive or were lacking. An attractive characteristic is its neutral effect on weight thereby providing patients with a non-obesogenic long-term treatment option. Key challenges in practice include the need for dosing on a full stomach and managing its early onset adverse effect of restlessness. Addressing these issues are critical to its long-term success.

Pharmacist Administration of Long-Acting Injectable Antipsychotics to Community-Dwelling Patients: A Scoping Review.

Long-acting injectable antipsychotics (LAIAs) have demonstrated positive outcomes for people with serious mental illnesses. They are underused, and access to LAIAs can be challenging. Pharmacies could serve as suitable environments for LAIA injection by pharmacists. To map and characterize the literature regarding the administration of LAIAs by pharmacists, a scoping review was conducted. Electronic-database searches (e.g., PsycINFO, Ovid Medline, Scopus, and Embase) and others including ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global and Google, were conducted. Citation lists and cited-reference searches were completed. Zotero was used as the reference-management database. Covidence was used for overall review management. Two authors independently screened articles and performed full-text abstractions. From all sources, 292 studies were imported, and 124 duplicates were removed. After screening, 13 studies were included for abstraction. Most articles were published in the US since 2010. Seven studies used database and survey methods, with adherence and patient satisfaction as the main patient-outcomes assessed. Reporting of pharmacists' and patients' perspectives surrounding LAIA administration was minimal and largely anecdotal. Financial analyses for services were also limited. The published literature surrounding pharmacist administration of LAIAs is limited, providing little-to-no guidance for the development and implementation of this service by others.