P2X4 receptor controls microglia activation and favors remyelination in autoimmune encephalitis.

Microglia survey the brain microenvironment for signals of injury or infection and are essential for the initiation and resolution of pathogen- or tissue damage-induced inflammation. Understanding the mechanism of microglia responses during pathology is hence vital to promote regenerative responses. Here, we analyzed the role of purinergic receptor P2X4 (P2X4R) in microglia/macrophages during autoimmune inflammation. Blockade of P2X4R signaling exacerbated clinical signs in the experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model and also favored microglia activation to a pro-inflammatory phenotype and inhibited myelin phagocytosis. Moreover, P2X4R blockade in microglia halted oligodendrocyte differentiation in vitro and remyelination after lysolecithin-induced demyelination. Conversely, potentiation of P2X4R signaling by the allosteric modulator ivermectin (IVM) favored a switch in microglia to an anti-inflammatory phenotype, potentiated myelin phagocytosis, promoted the remyelination response, and ameliorated clinical signs of EAE Our results provide evidence that P2X4Rs modulate microglia/macrophage inflammatory responses and identify IVM as a potential candidate among currently used drugs to promote the repair of myelin damage.

PET Imaging with [(18)F]FSPG Evidences the Role of System xc(-) on Brain Inflammation Following Cerebral Ischemia in Rats.

In vivo Positron Emission Tomography (PET) imaging of the cystine-glutamate antiporter (system xc(-)) activity with [(18)F]FSPG is meant to be an attractive tool for the diagnosis and therapy evaluation of brain diseases. However, the role of system xc(-) in cerebral ischemia and its involvement in inflammatory reaction has been scarcely explored. In this work, we report the longitudinal investigation of the neuroinflammatory process following transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) in rats using PET with [(18)F]FSPG and the translocator protein (TSPO) ligand [(18)F]DPA-714. In the ischemic territory, [(18)F]FSPG showed a progressive binding increase that peaked at days 3 to 7 and was followed by a progressive decrease from days 14 to 28 after reperfusion. In contrast, [(18)F]DPA-714 evidenced maximum binding uptake values over day 7 after reperfusion. Ex vivo immnunohistochemistry confirmed the up-regulation of system xc(-) in microglial cells and marginally in astrocytes. Inhibition of system xc(-) with sulfasalazine and S-4-CPG resulted in increased arginase (anti-inflammatory M2 marker) expression at day 7 after ischemia, together with a decrease in TSPO and microglial M1 proinflammatory markers (CCL2, TNF and iNOS) expression. Taken together, these results suggest that system xc(-) plays a key role in the inflammatory reaction underlying experimental stroke.