A Flattened Curve: National Trends of Women Physicians and Residents in Surgery Over the Last Decade.

INTRODUCTION: Women comprise over half of enrolled United States medical students. Yet, they continue to be under-represented in the active physician workforce, particularly among surgical specialties. This study investigates recent trends in the representation of women across surgical specialties in comparison to nonsurgical specialties within the US physician and resident workforce. METHODS: Data on active physicians and residents across 48 specialties were extracted from the Association of American Medical College's biennial (2010-2021) and annual reports (2018-2022), respectively. Descriptive statistics were performed on the proportion of physicians who were women in surgical and nonsurgical specialties. Poisson regressions were utilized with proportion of women as the outcome and specialty and year as the predictors. RESULTS: In 2021, 37.1% of all active physicians (946,790) were women, with a higher proportion of women in nonsurgical (38.4%) compared to surgical specialties (29.1%). In the resident workforce, women constituted 47.3% of the total workforce (149,296) in 2022, with a relatively comparable proportion of women in nonsurgical (47.4%) and surgical specialties (47.0%). The rate of yearly change decreased significantly (P < 0.01) for women in all surgical specialties except obstetrics and gynecology (1 of 10), with nonsurgical specialties as reference. CONCLUSIONS: Although the proportion of women in surgery has increased over the last decade, this is the first study to identify that the rate of yearly change in women in the active physician and resident workforce is decreasing significantly in almost all (9 of 10) surgical specialties relative to nonsurgical specialties. This emphasizes the urgent need for systemic interventions that address the major barriers in recruitment and retention of women surgeons.

"Value my culture, value me": a case for culturally relevant mentoring in medical education and academic medicine.

INTRODUCTION: Mentoring programs are one mechanism used to increase diversity and participation of historically underrepresented groups in academic medicine. However, more knowledge is needed about the mentoring experiences and how culturally relevant concepts and perspectives may influence diverse students, trainees, and faculty success. This case study utilized the Culturally Engaging Campus Environments (CECE) model which examines the experiences of students in higher education. We used this model to examine the mentoring experiences of Black and Latine faculty and offer practical implications for the medical education continuum. METHODS: Our research approach is best understood through qualitative inquiry stemming from a single-case study which allowed for in-depth understanding of the contexts informing the phenomenon. Phenomenology is well positioned to contribute to understanding science and health professions. Selection criteria included individuals who self-identified as Black or Latine; inclusive of all faculty ranks and tracks. This analysis focuses on 8 semi-structured interviews, averaging 3 h in length. RESULTS: Findings centered on the area of cultural relevance, and participant narratives revealed the connection of mentoring with cultural familiarity, culturally relevant knowledge, cultural service and engagement, and cultural validation. CONCLUSION: The use of cultural relevance indicators can inform the creation and evolution of mentoring programs towards holistic support of historically underrepresented trainees and faculty. Implications also focus on the development of mentors and championing the incorporation of cultural humility in the mentoring process. The implications in praxis offers the possibility for a new framework for culturally relevant mentoring (CRM). Through this framework we aim to enhance and facilitate inclusive learning environments and career development.

Medical student intentions to practice internal medicine in underserved areas associated with debt, identity and extracurricular participation.

BACKGROUND: Currently, Internal Medicine (IM) physicians do not reflect the ethno-racial diversity of the US population. Moreover, there is a shortage of IM physicians in Medically Underserved Areas (MUAs) in the US. The purpose of this study was to determine factors that influence medical students' intent to practice IM in MUAs. We hypothesized students with intentions to pursue a career in IM and work in MUAs were more likely than their peers to identify as underrepresented in medicine (URiM), report greater student debt loads, and report medical school experiences in cultural competencies. METHODS: We analyzed de-identified data of 67,050 graduating allopathic medical students who completed the Association of American Medical Colleges' (AAMC) Medical School annual Graduation Questionnaire (GQ) between 2012-2017 by multivariate logistic regression models, examining intent to practice IM in MUAs based on respondent characteristics. RESULTS: Of 8,363 students indicating an intent to pursue IM, 1,969 (23.54%) students also expressed an intent to practice in MUAs. Students awarded scholarships, (aOR: 1.23, [1.03-1.46]), with debt greater than $300,000 (aOR: 1.54, [1.21-1.95], and self-identified non-Hispanic Black/African American (aOR: 3.79 [2.95-4.87]) or Hispanic (aOR: 2.53, [2.05-3.11]) students were more likely than non-Hispanic White students to indicate intent to practice in MUAs. This pattern also existed for students who participated in a community-based research project (aOR: 1.55, [1.19-2.01]), had experiences related to health disparities (aOR: 2.13, [1.44-3.15]), or had experiences related to global health (aOR: 1.75, [1.34-2.28]). CONCLUSIONS: We identified experiences and characteristics that associate with intention to practice IM in MUAs, which can aid future curricular redesign by medical schools to expand and deepen comprehension of health disparities, access to community-based research, and global health experiences. Loan forgiveness programs and other initiatives to increase recruitment and retention of future physicians should also be developed.

Perspectives of Internal Medicine Residency Program Directors on the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME) Diversity Standards.

BACKGROUND: To increase diversity and inclusion in graduate medical education, the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME) issued a revision to their Common Program Requirements during the 2019-2020 academic year mandating that all residency programs must have policies and practices to achieve appropriate diversity among trainees and faculty. OBJECTIVE: To explore the perspectives of internal medicine program directors (PDs) and associate program directors (APDs) on the ACGME diversity standard. DESIGN: Qualitative study of internal medicine residency program leadership from academic and community programs across the USA. PARTICIPANTS: Current PDs (n = 12) and APDs (n = 8) of accredited US internal medicine residency programs. APPROACH: We conducted semi-structured, in-depth qualitative interviews. Data was analyzed using the constant comparative method to extract recurrent themes. KEY RESULTS: Three main themes, described by participants, were identified: (1) internal medicine PDs and APDs had limited knowledge of the new Common Program Requirement relating to diversity; (2) program leaders expressed concern that the diversity standard reaches beyond the PDs' scope of influence and lack of institutional commitment to the successful implementation of diversity standards; (3) participants described narrow view of diversity and inclusion efforts focusing on recruitment strategies during the interview season. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings of lack of familiarity with the new diversity standards, and limited institutional investment in diversity and inclusion efforts raise a concern about successful implementation across GME programs. Nevertheless, our finding suggests that structured implementation in the form of education, guideposts, and financial allocation can alleviate some of the concerns of program leadership in meeting the new ACGME diversity standard in a meaningful way.

Patient, Family, and Community Advisory Councils in Health Care and Research: a Systematic Review.

BACKGROUND: Patient-centeredness is a characteristic of high-quality medical care and requires engaging community members in health systems' decision-making. One key patient engagement strategy is patient, family, and community advisory boards/councils (PFACs), yet the evidence to guide PFACs is lacking. Systematic reviews on patient engagement may benefit from patient input, but feasibility is unclear. METHODS: A team of physicians, researchers, and a PFAC member conducted a systematic review to examine the impact of PFACs on health systems and describe optimal strategies for PFAC conduct. We searched MEDLINE, Embase, PsycINFO, CINAHL, Scopus, and Social Science Citation Index from inception through September 2016, as well as pre-identified websites. Two reviewers independently screened and abstracted data from studies, then assessed randomized studies for risk of bias and observational studies for quality using standardized measures. We performed a realist synthesis-which asks what works, for whom, under what circumstances-of abstracted data via 12 monthly meetings between investigators and two feedback sessions with a hospital-based PFAC. RESULTS: Eighteen articles describing 16 studies met study criteria. Randomized studies demonstrated moderate to high risk of bias and observational studies demonstrated poor to fair quality. Studies engaged patients at multiple levels of the health care system and suggested that in-person deliberation with health system leadership was most effective. Studies involving patient engagement in research focused on increasing study participation. PFAC recruitment was by nomination (n = 11) or not described (n = 5). No common measure of patient, family, or community engagement was identified. Realist synthesis was enriched by feedback from PFAC members. DISCUSSION: PFACs engage communities through individual projects but evidence of their impact on outcomes is lacking. A paucity of randomized controlled trials or high-quality observational studies guide strategies for engagement through PFACs. Standardized measurement tools for engagement are needed. Strategies for PFAC recruitment should be investigated and reported. PFAC members can feasibly contribute to systematic reviews. REGISTRATION AND FUNDING SOURCE: A protocol for record eligibility was developed a priori and was registered in the PROSPERO database of systematic reviews (registration number CRD42016052817). The Department of Veterans Affairs' Office of Academic Affiliations, through the National Clinician Scholars Program, funded this study.

Biopsychosocial Correlates of Binge Eating Disorder in Caucasian and African American Women with Obesity in Primary Care Settings.

This study examined racial differences in eating-disorder psychopathology, eating/weight-related histories, and biopsychosocial correlates in women (n = 53 Caucasian and n = 56 African American) with comorbid binge eating disorder (BED) and obesity seeking treatment in primary care settings. Caucasians reported significantly earlier onset of binge eating, dieting, and overweight, and greater number of times dieting than African American. The rate of metabolic syndrome did not differ by race. Caucasians had significantly elevated triglycerides whereas African Americans showed poorer glycaemic control (higher glycated haemoglobin A1c [HbA1c]), and significantly higher diastolic blood pressure. There were no significant racial differences in features of eating disorders, depressive symptoms, or mental and physical health functioning. The clinical presentation of eating-disorder psychopathology and associated psychosocial functioning differed little by race among obese women with BED seeking treatment in primary care settings. Clinicians should assess for and institute appropriate interventions for comorbid BED and obesity in both African American and Caucasian patients.

Implementing the patient-centered medical home in residency education.

BACKGROUND: In recent years, physician groups, government agencies and third party payers in the United States of America have promoted a Patient-centered Medical Home (PCMH) model that fosters a team-based approach to primary care. Advocates highlight the model's collaborative approach where physicians, mid-level providers, nurses and other health care personnel coordinate their efforts with an aim for high-quality, efficient care. Early studies show improvement in quality measures, reduction in emergency room visits and cost savings. However, implementing the PCMH presents particular challenges to physician training programs, including institutional commitment, infrastructure expenditures and faculty training. DISCUSSION: Teaching programs must consider how the objectives of the PCMH model align with recent innovations in resident evaluation now required by the Accreditation Council of Graduate Medical Education (ACGME) in the US. This article addresses these challenges, assesses the preliminary success of a pilot project, and proposes a viable, realistic model for implementation at other institutions.

Perspectives on Medical School Admission for Black Students Among Premedical Advisers at Historically Black Colleges and Universities.

Importance: There remains a lack of representation of Black physicians in the physician workforce despite decades of national efforts to increase diversity. Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) contribute to increasing representation in the workforce in the US. There is limited literature exploring the experiences of HBCU premedical students navigating the journey to medical school. Objective: To examine barriers to and facilitators of medical school matriculation among Black students by exploring the perspectives of premedical student advisers at HBCUs. Design, Setting, and Participants: In this qualitative study, HBCU advisers participated in a focus group in October 2019 or in semistructured interviews from January 2020 to March 2021. Using purposive sampling, premedical student advisers were recruited from different educational backgrounds and geographic locations and conducted 1-on-1 interviews. Data analysis was performed from March 2021 to March 2022. Main Outcomes and Measures: The main outcome was the experiences of HBCU premedical students navigating to medical school from the perspective of premedical advisers. An inductive approach to generate codes from the interviews and the focus groups was applied by reviewing transcripts and noting concepts and themes associated with advising strategies and student experiences. Results: Among the 26 participants, 18 (69.2%) were female, 13 (50.0%) had a doctorate degree, and 8 (30.8%) had more than 10 years of experience as advisers. Participants described 3 major themes: (1) the complex institutional relationship dynamics between undergraduate HBCUs and medical schools, (2) concerns about preferential treatment for students from predominantly white undergraduate schools when accessing clinical shadowing opportunities, and (3) the "it takes a village mindset" emphasizing family and peer involvement. Conclusions and Relevance: In this qualitative study, barriers to medical school matriculation included concerns for the preferential treatment of students from predominantly white institutions when engaging with medical schools and a lack of access to clinical opportunities for HBCU students. The findings suggest that medical schools should continue to build collaborative partnerships with HBCUs to ensure equitable access to opportunities that prepare students for medical school.

Age-based and sex-based disparities in screening colonoscopy use among medicare beneficiaries.

BACKGROUND: The use of screening colonoscopy among older persons is controversial due to variability in life expectancy and sex-based differences in colorectal cancer incidence. We assessed the relation between sex, age, and receipt of screening colonoscopy overall and within strata of life expectancy. METHODS: We used Medicare data to identify beneficiaries during the years 2001 to 2005 who had not undergone a colonoscopy in the prior 3 years. Medicare claims were used to identify screening colonoscopy use; life expectancy was estimated using a life table approach. We used Poisson regression to examine sex and age differences in screening colonoscopy, adjusted for patient demographic characteristics. RESULTS: Our sample consisted of 161,229 patients (61.9% female; mean age 76.9 y). The screening colonoscopy rates for females and males were 16.9 and 24.4 screening colonoscopies per 1000 person-years, respectively (P<0.001). The screening colonoscopy rate was highest for patients with the longest life expectancy (10 to 15 y: 27.2 screening colonoscopies per 1000 person-years) compared with 3.4 per 1000 person-years in the life expectancy <5-year group. Within specific life expectancy categories, older patients had significantly lower screening rates; in the 10- to 15-year life expectancy category, patients 75 to 79 years old had a lower rate (21.9 screening colonoscopies per 1000 person-years) than patients 68 to 69 years old (34.1 screening colonoscopies per 1000 person-years; P<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: In a large cohort of Medicare beneficiaries, there was evidence of screening colonoscopy use even among patients with a short life expectancy. After accounting for life expectancy, females and older persons were less likely to undergo screening colonoscopy.

Differences In Debt Among Postgraduate Medical Residents By Self-Designated Race And Ethnicity, 2014-19.

The US physician workforce does not reflect the racial and ethnic makeup of the country's population, despite efforts to promote diversity. Becoming a physician requires significant time and financial investment, and populations that are underrepresented in medicine have also been excluded from building wealth. Understanding the differential burden of debt by race and ethnicity may inform strategies to improve workforce diversity. We used 2014-19 data on postgraduate resident trainees from the Association of American Medical Colleges to examine the association between race and ethnicity and debt independent of other demographics and residency characteristics. Black trainees were significantly more likely to have every type of debt than the overall sample and all other racial and ethnic groups (96 percent of Black trainees had any debt versus 83 percent overall; 60 percent had premedical education loans versus 35 percent overall, and 50 percent had consumer debt versus 25 percent overall). American Indian/Alaska Native, Hispanic, and Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander trainees were more likely to have debt compared with White and Asian trainees. Overall, debt prevalence decreased over time and varied by specialty; however, for Black trainees, debt decreased minimally over time and was stable across specialties. Scholarships, debt relief, and financial guidance should be explored to improve diversity and inclusion in medicine across specialties.

Anti-Black racism in clinical supervision: asynchronous simulated encounters facilitate reflective practice.

Background Racist interactions in clinical practice remain a pervasive reality for Black healthcare providers. We sought to develop a framework to inform supervisors' actions when confronting racism in clinical practice and protecting trainees under their oversight. Methods We conducted a qualitative study in which experienced supervisors responded to seven short, videotaped interactions between: 1) Black trainees and a simulated patient (SP) in a racist role; 2) the trainees and their respective supervisors; and 3) the trainees and their supervisors together with the SP. The clinical exchanges exemplified different types of racist (entrenching) or antiracist (uprooting) behaviors by the supervisors. After viewing each clip, participants wrote their reflections confidentially; they later joined a structured debriefing together. We used thematic analysis to identify supervisors' behavioral patterns when confronting racist interactions. Results Based on the input of 52 participants recruited into five two-hour-long sessions, we categorized the behaviors of supervisors facing anti-Black racial injuries involving learners under their oversight. We organized supervisor behaviors into five interlocking domains, each with a range of possible themes: 1) Joining: from conciliatory to confrontational in communicating with the aggressor; 2) Explicitness: from avoiding to naming racism; 3) Ownership: from individual to shared responsibility of the event and the response to it; 4) Involving: from excusing to including the aggrieved party when confronting the aggressor; and 5) Stance: from protective to paternalistic in supporting the learner's autonomy. Conclusions Our qualitative findings can provide a framework for facilitated discussion toward reflective practice among healthcare providers who may have experienced, witnessed, or intervened in anti-Black racist interactions. They can also help medical educators to inform faculty development to fight anti-Black racism in clinical practice. The video materials we developed are available for viewing and download and can be used or adapted as springboards for reflective discussion or faculty development activities.

Moving Beyond Implicit Bias in Antiracist Academic Medicine Initiatives.

The concept of implicit bias has arguably laid the groundwork for uncomfortable discussions surrounding race in academic medicine, but its effectiveness in changing racist behavior and systems remains unclear. Terms like implicit bias, while perhaps more palatable than other concepts to some, may result in confusion and divert time from meaningful reconceptualization and creation of effective antiracism initiatives. This Invited Commentary contends that the term implicit bias is inadequate for addressing racism because it is too broad; does not necessarily lead to a change in racist behaviors; assumes that racism is unconscious, aggressor-centered, and individual-focused; and implies that everyone suffers equally in a racist system. The authors illustrate why terms like implicit bias are inadequate in combatting racism in medicine and suggest alternate terminology to use while engaging in antiracism work in academic medicine.

Piloting web-based structural competency modules among internal medicine residents and graduate students in public health.

Introduction: Fewer than half of internal medicine program directors report any health disparities curriculum. We piloted a web-based healthcare disparities module among internal medicine (IM) residents to test effectiveness and feasibility, compared to a convenient sample of graduate students enrolled in a public health equity course. Methods: IM residents participated in an in-person session (module 1: introduction to racial and ethnic health disparities), but first, they completed a pre-module knowledge quiz. Two weeks later, they completed module 2: "unconscious associations" and a post-module knowledge quiz. For the control arm Yale School of Public Health (YSPH) students enrolled in a course on health disparities completed the pre-module knowledge quiz, module 1, and 2 as required by their course instructor. Results: Forty-nine IM residents and 22 YSPH students completed the pre-module quiz and Module 1. The mean (SD) score out of 25 possible points for the IM residents on the pre-module quiz was 16.1/25 (2.8), and 16.6/25 (3.2) for YSPH students, with no statistically significant difference. Nineteen residents (38.8%) completed the post-module quiz with a mean score of 16.7/25 (2.2), Hedge's g =0.23, compared to 18 (81.8%) YSPH students, whose mean (SD) score was 19.5/25 (2.1), Hedge's g=1.05. YSPH students' post-module quiz average was statistically significantly higher than their pre-module test score, as well as the residents' post-module test (P < 0.001). In examining participants' responses to specific questions, we found that 51% (n = 25) of residents wrongly defined discrimination with an emphasis on attitudes and intent as opposed to actions and impact, compared to 22.7% (n = 5) YSPH students before the module, vs. 63.2% (n = 12) and 88.9% (n = 16) respectively after. Conclusion: After completing a healthcare disparities course, graduate students in public health saw greater gains in knowledge compared to IM residents. Residents' responses showed knowledge gaps such as understanding discrimination, and highlight growth opportunity in terms of health equity education. Furthermore, embedding health equity education in required curricular activities may be a more effective approach.

Perspectives of Historically Black College and University Advisors to Premedical Students During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Qualitative Study.

Importance: Black students remain underrepresented in medicine despite national efforts to increase diversity in the physician workforce. Historically Black College and University (HBCU) students play a vital role in increasing representation in the workforce. Currently, there is a paucity of literature understanding the impact of COVID-19 on premedical students from HBCUs. Understanding the adverse impact of the pandemic on HBCU students is essential to inform strategies that promote holistic medical school admissions and increased diversity, equity, and inclusion in the medical workforce. Objective: To explore premedical advisors' perspectives on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on HBCU premedical students pursuing admission to medical school. Design, Setting, and Participants: In this qualitative study, semistructured interviews of HBCU premedical advisors were performed from March 2020 to March 2021. One-on-one interviews were conducted with 21 advisors with a depth of experience as advisors, varied educational backgrounds, and diverse geographic representation. Data analysis was performed from March 2021 to December 2021. Main Outcomes and Measures: The experiences of HBCU premedical students during the COVID-19 pandemic from the perspective of the premedical advisor. Results: Among the 21 participants, 13 (62%) were female, 15 (71%) were Black or African American, 11 (52%) had a doctorate degree, and 7 (33%) had more than 10 years of experience as advisors. Participants described 3 major themes: (1) balancing academic responsibilities with family demands; (2) distraction, disruption, and isolation in the virtual learning environment; and (3) harmful impact of new stressors for HBCU applicants in the medical school admissions process. Conclusions and Relevance: In this qualitative study of HBCU advisors to premedical students, advisors described how the COVID-19 pandemic adversely affected undergraduate HBCU premedical students; students faced family hardships, challenges with virtual learning, and uncertainty in the medical school admissions process. These findings suggest that medical schools should continue to create direct interventions to address the challenges that HBCU students faced during the height of the pandemic and as longitudinal consequences of the pandemic. Addressing these issues may improve physician workforce representation and promote more equitable patient care for underserved communities disproportionately affected by COVID-19 and other health disparities.

Medical Students' Demographic Characteristics and Their Perceptions of Faculty Role Modeling of Respect for Diversity.

Importance: Faculty role modeling is critical to medical students' professional development to provide culturally adept, patient-centered care. However, little is known about students' perceptions of faculty role modeling of respect for diversity. Objective: To examine whether variation exists in medical students' perceptions of faculty role modeling of respect for diversity by student demographic characteristics. Design, Setting, and Participants: This cross-sectional study analyzed data from the Association of American Medical Colleges' 2016 and 2017 Medical School Graduation Questionnaire, which was administered to graduating students at 140 accredited allopathic US medical schools. Data were analyzed from January 1 to November 1, 2020. Main Outcomes and Measures: Students' perceptions of faculty role modeling of respect for diversity by the independent variables sex, race/ethnicity, sexual orientation, and age. Multivariable logistic regression was used to examine the extent to which student-reported perceptions of faculty respect for diversity varied by demographic characteristics, and logistic regression models were sequentially adjusted first for demographic characteristics and then for marital status and financial variables. Results: Of 30 651 students who completed the survey, the final study sample consisted of 28 778 respondents, representing 75.4% of the 38 160 total US medical school graduates in 2016 and 2017. Of the respondents, 14 804 (51.4%) were male participants and 1506 (5.2%) identified as lesbian, gay, or bisexual (LGB); a total of 11 926 respondents (41.4%) were 26 years or younger. A total of 17 159 respondents (59.6%) identified as White, 5958 (20.7%) as Asian, 1469 (5.1%) as Black/African American, 2431 (8.4%) as Hispanic/Latinx, and 87 (0.3%) as American Indian/Alaska Native/Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander individuals. Overall, 5101 students (17.7%) reported perceiving that faculty showed a lack of respect for diversity. Of those who identified as Black/African American students, 540 (36.8%) reported perceiving a lack of faculty respect for diversity compared with 2468 White students (14.4%), with an OR of perceived lack of respect of 3.24 (95% CI, 2.86-3.66) after adjusting for other demographic characteristics and covariates. American Indian/Alaska Native/Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander (OR, 1.73; 95% CI, 1.03-2.92), Asian (OR, 1.62; 95% CI, 1.49-1.75), or Hispanic/Latinx (OR, 1.43; 95% CI, 1.26-1.75) students also had greater odds of perceiving a lack of faculty respect for diversity compared with White students. Female students had greater odds compared with male students (OR, 1.17; 95% CI, 1.10-1.25), and students who identified as LGB (OR, 1.96; 95% CI, 1.74-2.22) or unknown sexual orientation (OR, 1.79; 95% CI, 1.29-2.47) had greater odds compared with heterosexual students. Students aged 33 years or older had greater odds of reporting a perceived lack of respect compared with students aged 26 years or younger (OR, 1.81; 95% CI, 1.58-2.08). Conclusions and Relevance: In this cross-sectional study, female students, students belonging to racial/ethnic minority groups, and LGB students disproportionately reported perceiving a lack of respect for diversity among faculty, which has important implications for patient care, the learning environment, and the well-being of medical trainees.