Comparing apples to manzanas and oranges to naranjas: A new measure of English-Spanish vocabulary for dual language learners.

The valid assessment of vocabulary development in dual-language-learning infants is critical to developmental science. We developed the Dual Language Learners English-Spanish (DLL-ES) Inventories to measure vocabularies of U.S. English-Spanish DLLs. The inventories provide translation equivalents for all Spanish and English items on Communicative Development Inventory (CDI) short forms; extended inventories based on CDI long forms; and Spanish language-variety options. Item-Response Theory analyses applied to Wordbank and Web-CDI data (n = 2603, 12-18 months; n = 6722, 16-36 months; half female; 1% Asian, 3% Black, 2% Hispanic, 30% White, 64% unknown) showed near-perfect associations between DLL-ES and CDI long-form scores. Interviews with 10 Hispanic mothers of 18- to 24-month-olds (2 White, 1 Black, 7 multi-racial; 6 female) provide a proof of concept for the value of the DLL-ES for assessing the vocabularies of DLLs.

I know that voice! Mothers' voices influence children's perceptions of emotional intensity.

The ability to interpret others' emotions is a critical skill for children's socioemotional functioning. Although research has emphasized facial emotion expressions, children are also constantly required to interpret vocal emotion expressed at or around them by individuals who are both familiar and unfamiliar to them. The current study examined how speaker familiarity, specific emotions, and the acoustic properties that comprise affective prosody influenced children's interpretations of emotional intensity. Participants were 51 7- and 8-year-olds presented with speech stimuli spoken in happy, angry, sad, and nonemotional prosodies by both each child's mother and another child's mother unfamiliar to the target child. Analyses indicated that children rated their own mothers as more intensely emotional compared with the unfamiliar mothers and that this effect was specific to angry and happy prosodies. Furthermore, the acoustic properties predicted children's emotional intensity ratings in different patterns for each emotion. The results are discussed in terms of the significance of the mother's voice in children's development of emotional understanding.

Visual motion priors differ for infants and mothers.

Visual motion direction ambiguities due to edge-aperture interaction might be resolved by speed priors, but scant empirical data support this hypothesis. We measured optic flow and gaze positions of walking mothers and the infants they carried. Empirically derived motion priors for infants are vertically elongated and shifted upward relative to mothers. Skewed normal distributions fitted to estimated retinal speeds peak at values above 20°/sec.

Defective motion processing in children with cerebral visual impairment due to periventricular white matter damage.

AIM: We sought to characterize visual motion processing in children with cerebral visual impairment (CVI) due to periventricular white matter damage caused by either hydrocephalus (eight individuals) or periventricular leukomalacia (PVL) associated with prematurity (11 individuals). METHOD: Using steady-state visually evoked potentials (ssVEP), we measured cortical activity related to motion processing for two distinct types of visual stimuli: 'local' motion patterns thought to activate mainly primary visual cortex (V1), and 'global' or coherent patterns thought to activate higher cortical visual association areas (V3, V5, etc.). We studied three groups of children: (1) 19 children with CVI (mean age 9y 6mo [SD 3y 8mo]; 9 male; 10 female); (2) 40 neurologically and visually normal comparison children (mean age 9y 6mo [SD 3y 1mo]; 18 male; 22 female); and (3) because strabismus and amblyopia are common in children with CVI, a group of 41 children without neurological problems who had visual deficits due to amblyopia and/or strabismus (mean age 7y 8mo [SD 2y 8mo]; 28 male; 13 female). RESULTS: We found that the processing of global as opposed to local motion was preferentially impaired in individuals with CVI, especially for slower target velocities (p=0.028). INTERPRETATION: Motion processing is impaired in children with CVI. ssVEP may provide useful and objective information about the development of higher visual function in children at risk for CVI.

Let Me Go: The Influences of Crawling Experience and Temperament on the Development of Anger Expression.

Infants' emerging ability to move independently by crawling is associated with changes in multiple domains, including an increase in expressions of anger in situations that block infants' goals, but it is unknown whether increased anger is specifically because of experience with being able to move autonomously or simply related to age. To examine the influence of locomotion on developmental change in anger, infants' (N = 20) anger expressions during an arm restraint procedure were observed longitudinally at a precrawling baseline assessment and 2 and 6 weeks after the onset of crawling. Infant age at each crawling stage was unrelated to the frequency of anger expressed in response to arm restraint. At 6 weeks postcrawling onset, infants whose mothers rated them as temperamentally higher in distress to limitations, compared with those rated lower, showed a greater increase in the frequency of anger expressed during the arm restraint relative to earlier assessments and took longer to reduce the frequency of anger expressed when no longer restrained. Findings suggest that experience with autonomous crawling has an effect on anger expression, independent of age, and that a temperamental tendency to become distressed by limitations may exacerbate the effect of crawling on anger expression.

Show your work: Tools for open developmental science.

Since grade school, students of many subjects have learned to "show their work" in order to receive full credit for assignments. Many of the reasons for students to show their work extend to the conduct of scientific research. And yet multiple barriers make it challenging to share and show the products of scientific work beyond published findings. This chapter discusses some of these barriers and how web-based data repositories help overcome them. The focus is on Databrary.org, a data library specialized for storing and sharing video data with a restricted community of institutionally approved investigators. Databrary was designed by and for developmental researchers, and so its features and policies reflect many of the specific challenges faced by this community, especially those associated with sharing video and related identifiable data. The chapter argues that developmental science poses some of the most interesting, challenging, and important questions in all of science, and that by openly sharing much more of the products and processes of our work, developmental scientists can accelerate discovery while making our scholarship much more robust and reproducible.

Vision contributes to sex differences in spatial cognition and activity interests.

Sex differences in a variety of psychological characteristics are well-documented, with substantial research focused on factors that affect their magnitude and causes. Particular attention has focused on mental rotation, a measure of spatial cognition, and on activity interests. We studied whether sex differences in visual perception-luminance contrast thresholds and motion duration thresholds-contribute to sex differences in mental rotation and interest in male-typed activities. We confirmed sex differences in vision, mental rotation, and activity interests in a sample of 132 college students. In novel findings, we showed that vision correlated with mental rotation performance in women, that vision was a better predictor of individual differences in mental rotation than sex, and that contrast thresholds correlated with women's interest in male-typed activities. These results suggest that sex differences in spatial cognition and activity interests may have their roots in basic perceptual processes.

Children's perceptual sensitivity to optic flow-like visual motion differs from adults.

Observers experience complex patterns of visual motion in daily life due to their own movements through space, the movement of objects, and the geometry of surfaces in the visible world. Motion information shapes behavior and brain activity beginning in infancy. And yet most prior behavioral research has focused on how children process only one type, linear motion, leaving largely unexplored how children respond to radial or rotational motion patterns that co-occur with linear motion in everyday visual experience. This study examined how children and adults detect linear and radial motion patterns corrupted by a range of noise levels. Five to eight-year-old children (n = 25, 16 females; 76% White, 4% Asian, 16% more than one, 4% unknown) and young adults (n = 29, 15 females; 83.33% White, 16.67% Asian) viewed pairs of radial and linear motion displays mixed with random noise at one of two speeds (2 deg/s or 8 deg/s). Participants selected the display with coherent motion. Children and adults showed higher accuracy (percent correct) to radial versus linear motion patterns. Children had higher accuracy to the faster speed, while adults showed the opposite pattern. Adults showed better performance than children in all conditions. Exploratory analyses showed that male children had higher accuracy than their female peers. We conclude that motion processing develops in childhood with separable developmental trajectories for the processing of slow and fast visual motion, and that while further investigation is warranted, sex differences in motion processing found in young and older adults may begin in middle childhood. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

(Hyper)active Data Curation: A Video Case Study from Behavioral Science.

Video data are uniquely suited for research reuse and for documenting research methods and findings. However, curation of video data is a serious hurdle for researchers in the social and behavioral sciences, where behavioral video data are obtained session by session and data sharing is not the norm. To eliminate the onerous burden of post hoc curation at the time of publication (or later), we describe best practices in active data curation-where data are curated and uploaded immediately after each data collection to allow instantaneous sharing with one button press at any time. Indeed, we recommend that researchers adopt "hyperactive" data curation where they openly share every step of their research process. The necessary infrastructure and tools are provided by Databrary-a secure, web-based data library designed for active curation and sharing of personally identifiable video data and associated metadata. We provide a case study of hyperactive curation of video data from the Play and Learning Across a Year (PLAY) project, where dozens of researchers developed a common protocol to collect, annotate, and actively curate video data of infants and mothers during natural activity in their homes at research sites across North America. PLAY relies on scalable standardized workflows to facilitate collaborative research, assure data quality, and prepare the corpus for sharing and reuse throughout the entire research process.

Advancing scientific integrity, transparency, and openness in child development research: Challenges and possible solutions.

Based on the recommendations of a Task Force on Scientific Integrity and Openness it appointed, the Governing Council of the Society for Research in Child Development (SRCD) adopted a Policy on Scientific Integrity and Openness (SRCD, 2019a) and accompanying Author Guidelines on Scientific Integrity and Openness for Publishing in Child Development (SRCD, 2019b). Here we discuss some of the challenges associated with realizing SRCD's vision for a science of child development that is open, transparent, robust, impactful, and conducted with the highest standards of integrity. In identifying the challenges-protecting participants and researchers from harm, respecting diversity, and balancing the benefits of change with the costs -we also offer constructive solutions.

Young children's neural processing of their mother's voice: An fMRI study.

In addition to semantic content, human speech carries paralinguistic information that conveys important social cues such as a speaker's identity. For young children, their own mothers' voice is one of the most salient vocal inputs in their daily environment. Indeed, qualities of mothers' voices are shown to contribute to children's social development. Our knowledge of how the mother's voice is processed at the neural level, however, is limited. This study investigated whether the voice of a mother modulates activation in the network of regions activated by the human voice in young children differently than the voice of an unfamiliar mother. We collected fMRI data from 32 typically developing 7- and 8-year-olds as they listened to natural speech produced by their mother and another child's mother. We used emotionally-varied natural speech stimuli to approximate the range of children's day-to-day experience. We individually-defined functional ROIs in children's voice-sensitive neural network and then independently investigated the extent to which activation in these regions is modulated by speaker identity. The bilateral posterior auditory cortex, superior temporal gyrus (STG), and inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) exhibit enhanced activation in response to the voice of one's own mother versus that of an unfamiliar mother. The findings indicate that children process the voice of their own mother uniquely, and pave the way for future studies of how social information processing contributes to the trajectory of child social development.

Practical Solutions for Sharing Data and Materials From Psychological Research.

Widespread sharing of data and materials (including displays and text- and video-based descriptions of experimental procedures) will improve the reproducibility of psychological science and accelerate the pace of discovery. In this article, we discuss some of the challenges to open sharing and offer practical solutions for researchers who wish to share more of the products-and process-of their research. Many of these solutions were devised by the Databrary.org data library for storing and sharing video, audio, and other forms of sensitive or personally identifiable data. We also discuss ways in which researchers can make shared data and materials easier for others to find and reuse. Widely adopted, these solutions and practices will increase transparency and speed progress in psychological science.

Video can make behavioural science more reproducible.

We recommend the widespread use of a simple, inexpensive, easy-to-implement, and uniquely powerful tool to improve the transparency and reproducibility of behavioural research - video recordings.

Progress toward openness, transparency, and reproducibility in cognitive neuroscience.

Accumulating evidence suggests that many findings in psychological science and cognitive neuroscience may prove difficult to reproduce; statistical power in brain imaging studies is low and has not improved recently; software errors in analysis tools are common and can go undetected for many years; and, a few large-scale studies notwithstanding, open sharing of data, code, and materials remain the rare exception. At the same time, there is a renewed focus on reproducibility, transparency, and openness as essential core values in cognitive neuroscience. The emergence and rapid growth of data archives, meta-analytic tools, software pipelines, and research groups devoted to improved methodology reflect this new sensibility. We review evidence that the field has begun to embrace new open research practices and illustrate how these can begin to address problems of reproducibility, statistical power, and transparency in ways that will ultimately accelerate discovery.

From big data to deep insight in developmental science.

The use of the term 'big data' has grown substantially over the past several decades and is now widespread. In this review, I ask what makes data 'big' and what implications the size, density, or complexity of datasets have for the science of human development. A survey of existing datasets illustrates how existing large, complex, multilevel, and multimeasure data can reveal the complexities of developmental processes. At the same time, significant technical, policy, ethics, transparency, cultural, and conceptual issues associated with the use of big data must be addressed. Most big developmental science data are currently hard to find and cumbersome to access, the field lacks a culture of data sharing, and there is no consensus about who owns or should control research data. But, these barriers are dissolving. Developmental researchers are finding new ways to collect, manage, store, share, and enable others to reuse data. This promises a future in which big data can lead to deeper insights about some of the most profound questions in behavioral science.

Children's Brain Responses to Optic Flow Vary by Pattern Type and Motion Speed.

Structured patterns of global visual motion called optic flow provide crucial information about an observer's speed and direction of self-motion and about the geometry of the environment. Brain and behavioral responses to optic flow undergo considerable postnatal maturation, but relatively little brain imaging evidence describes the time course of development in motion processing systems in early to middle childhood, a time when psychophysical data suggest that there are changes in sensitivity. To fill this gap, electroencephalographic (EEG) responses were recorded in 4- to 8-year-old children who viewed three time-varying optic flow patterns (translation, rotation, and radial expansion/contraction) at three different speeds (2, 4, and 8 deg/s). Modulations of global motion coherence evoked coherent EEG responses at the first harmonic that differed by flow pattern and responses at the third harmonic and dot update rate that varied by speed. Pattern-related responses clustered over right lateral channels while speed-related responses clustered over midline channels. Both children and adults show widespread responses to modulations of motion coherence at the second harmonic that are not selective for pattern or speed. The results suggest that the developing brain segregates the processing of optic flow pattern from speed and that an adult-like pattern of neural responses to optic flow has begun to emerge by early to middle childhood.

Transforming Education Research Through Open Video Data Sharing.

Open data sharing promises to accelerate the pace of discovery in the developmental and learning sciences, but significant technical, policy, and cultural barriers have limited its adoption. As a result, most research on learning and development remains shrouded in a culture of isolation. Data sharing is the rare exception (Gilmore, 2016). Many researchers who study teaching and learning in classroom, laboratory, museum, and home contexts use video as a primary source of raw research data. Unlike other measures, video captures the complexity, richness, and diversity of behavior. Moreover, because video is self-documenting, it presents significant potential for reuse. However, the potential for reuse goes largely unrealized because videos are rarely shared. Research videos contain information about participants' identities making the materials challenging to share. The large size of video files, diversity of formats, and incompatible software tools pose technical challenges. The Databrary (databrary.org) digital library enables researchers who study learning and development to store, share, stream, and annotate videos. In this article, we describe how Databrary has overcome barriers to sharing research videos and associated data and metadata. Databrary has developed solutions for respecting participants' privacy; for storing, streaming, and sharing videos; and for managing videos and associated metadata. The Databrary experience suggests ways that videos and other identifiable data collected in the context of educational research might be shared. Open data sharing enabled by Databrary can serve as a catalyst for a truly multidisciplinary science of learning.

Researcher-library collaborations: Data repositories as a service for researchers.

INTRODUCTION: New interest has arisen in organizing, preserving, and sharing the raw materials-the data and metadata-that undergird the published products of research. Library and information scientists have valuable expertise to bring to bear in the effort to create larger, more diverse, and more widely used data repositories. However, for libraries to be maximally successful in providing the research data management and preservation services required of a successful data repository, librarians must work closely with researchers and learn about their data management workflows. DESCRIPTION OF SERVICES: Databrary is a data repository that is closely linked to the needs of a specific scholarly community-researchers who use video as a main source of data to study child development and learning. The project's success to date is a result of its focus on community outreach and providing services for scholarly communication, engaging institutional partners, offering services for data curation with the guidance of closely involved information professionals, and the creation of a strong technical infrastructure. NEXT STEPS: Databrary plans to improve its curation tools that allow researchers to deposit their own data, enhance the user-facing feature set, increase integration with library systems, and implement strategies for long-term sustainability.

Stability in young infants' discrimination of optic flow.

Although considerable progress has been made in understanding how adults perceive their direction of self-motion, or heading, from optic flow, little is known about how these perceptual processes develop in infants. In 3 experiments, the authors explored how well 3- to 6-month-old infants could discriminate between optic flow patterns that simulated changes in heading direction. The results suggest that (a) prior to the onset of locomotion, the majority of infants discriminate between optic flow displays that simulate only large (> 22 deg.) changes in heading, (b) there is minimal development in sensitivity between 3 and 6 months, and (c) optic flow alone is sufficient for infants to discriminate heading. These data suggest that spatial abilities associated with the dorsal visual stream undergo prolonged postnatal development and may depend on locomotor experience.