Brain endothelial cells metabolize glutamate via glutamate dehydrogenase to replenish TCA-intermediates and produce ATP under hypoglycemic conditions.

The endothelial cells of the blood-brain barrier participate in the regulation of glutamate concentrations in the brain interstitial fluid by taking up brain glutamate. However, endothelial glutamate metabolism has not been characterized, nor is its role in brain glutamate homeostasis and endothelial energy production known. The aim of this study was to investigate endothelial glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) expression and glutamate metabolism and probe its functional significance. The primary brain endothelial cells were isolated from bovine and mouse brains, and human brain endothelial cells were derived from induced pluripotent stem cells. GDH expression on the protein level and GDH function were investigated in the model systems using western blotting, confocal microscopy, 13 C-glutamate metabolism, and Seahorse assay. In this study, it was shown that GDH was expressed in murine and bovine brain capillaries and in cultured primary mouse and bovine brain endothelial cells as well as in human-induced pluripotent stem cell-derived endothelial cells. The endothelial GDH expression was confirmed in brain capillaries from mice carrying a central nervous system-specific GDH knockout. Endothelial cells from all tested species metabolized 13 C-glutamate to α-ketoglutarate, which subsequently entered the tricarboxylic acid (TCA)-cycle. Brain endothelial cells maintained mitochondrial oxygen consumption rates, when supplied with glutamate alone, whereas glutamate supplied in addition to glucose did not lead to additional oxygen consumption. In conclusion, brain endothelial cells directly take up and metabolize glutamate and utilize the resulting α-ketoglutarate in the tricarboxylic acid cycle to ultimately yield ATP if glucose is unavailable.

Validation of reference genes for normalization of real-time quantitative PCR studies of gene expression in brain capillary endothelial cells cultured in vitro.

BACKGROUND: The genes encoding ß-actin and GAPDH are two of the most commonly used reference genes for normalization in in vitro blood-brain barrier studies. Studies have, however, shown that these reference genes might not always be the best choice. The aim of the present study was to evaluate 10 reference genes for use in mRNA profiling studies in primary cultures of brain endothelial cells of bovine origin. METHODS: Gene evaluations were performed by qPCR in mono-culture and in co-cultures with astrocytes. The expression of reference genes was furthermore investigated during culture. Qbase+ software was used to analyze the stability of the tested genes and for determinations of the optimal number of reference genes. RESULTS: The stability of the reference genes varied between the culture configurations, but for all culture configurations we found that the optimal number of reference genes were two. PMM-1, RPL13A and ß-actin were the most stable genes in mono-cultures, non-contact co-culture and contact co-culture respectively. For studies comparing gene expression between different culture configurations the optimal number of reference genes was three and RPL13A was found to be most stable. During cell culture a number of four reference genes were found to be optimal and YWHAZ was found to be the most stable gene. ß-actin and GAPDH were found to be the least stable genes during culture. CONCLUSION: Overall we found that the validation of reference genes was important in order to normalize target gene expression correctly, and suggest sets of reference genes to be used under different experimental conditions, in order to quantify mRNA transcript levels in blood-brain barrier cell models correctly.

Transferrin receptor expression and role in transendothelial transport of transferrin in cultured brain endothelial monolayers.

Receptor-mediated transcytosis of the transferrin receptor has been suggested as a potential transport system to deliver therapeutic molecules into the brain. Recent studies have however shown that therapeutic antibodies, which have been reported to cross the brain endothelium, reach greater brain exposure when the affinity of the antibodies to the transferrin receptor is lowered. The lower affinity of the antibodies to the transferrin receptor facilitates the dissociation from the receptor within the endosomal compartments, which may indicate that the receptor itself does not necessarily move across the endothelial cells by transcytosis. The aim of the present study was to investigate transferrin receptor expression and role in transendothelial transferrin transport in cultured bovine brain endothelial cell monolayers. Transferrin receptor mRNA and protein levels were investigated in endothelial mono-cultures and co-cultures with astrocytes, as well as in freshly isolated brain capillaries using qPCR, immunocytochemistry and Western blotting. Transendothelial transport and luminal association of holo-transferrin was investigated using [125I]holo-transferrin or [59Fe]-transferrin. Transferrin receptor mRNA expression in all cell culture configurations was lower than in freshly isolated capillaries, but the expression slightly increased during six days of culture. The mRNA expression levels were similar in mono-cultures and co-cultures. Immunostaining demonstrated comparable transferrin receptor localization patterns in mono-cultures and co-cultures. The endothelial cells demonstrated an up-regulation of transferrin receptor mRNA after treatment with the iron chelator deferoxamine. The association of [125I]holo-transferrin and [59Fe]-transferrin to the endothelial cells was inhibited by an excess of unlabeled holo-transferrin, indicating receptor mediated association. However, over time the cell associated [59Fe]-label exceeded that of [125I]holo-transferrin, which could indicate release of iron in the endothelial cells and receptor recycling. Luminal-to-abluminal transport of [125I]holo-transferrin across endothelial cell monolayers was low and not inhibited by unlabeled holo-transferrin. This indicated that transendothelial transferrin transport was independent of transferrin receptor-mediated transcytosis.

Sortilin regulates blood-brain barrier integrity.

Brain homeostasis depends on the existence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Despite decades of research, the factors and signalling pathways for modulating and maintaining BBB integrity are not fully elucidated. Here, we characterise the expression and function of the multifunctional receptor, sortilin, in the cells of the BBB, in vivo and in vitro. We show that sortilin acts as an important regulatory protein of the BBB's tightness. In rats lacking sortilin, the BBB was leaky, which correlated well with relocated distribution of the localisation of zonula occludens-1, VE-cadherin and ß-catenin junctional proteins. Furthermore, the absence of sortilin in brain endothelial cells resulted in decreased phosphorylation of Akt signalling protein and increased the level of phospho-ERK1/2. As a putative result of MAPK/ERK pathway activity, the junctions between the brain endothelial cells were disintegrated and the integrity of the BBB became compromised. The identified barrier differences between wild-type and Sort1-/- brain endothelial cells can pave the way for a better understanding of sortilin's role in the healthy and diseased BBB.