Family still matters: Human social motivation across 42 countries during a global pandemic.

The COVID-19 pandemic caused drastic social changes for many people, including separation from friends and coworkers, enforced close contact with family, and reductions in mobility. Here we assess the extent to which people's evolutionarily-relevant basic motivations and goals-fundamental social motives such as Affiliation and Kin Care-might have been affected. To address this question, we gathered data on fundamental social motives in 42 countries (N = 15,915) across two waves, including 19 countries (N = 10,907) for which data were gathered both before and during the pandemic (pre-pandemic wave: 32 countries, N = 8998; 3302 male, 5585 female; M age  = 24.43, SD = 7.91; mid-pandemic wave: 29 countries, N = 6917; 2249 male, 4218 female; M age  = 28.59, SD = 11.31). Samples include data collected online (e.g., Prolific, MTurk), at universities, and via community sampling. We found that Disease Avoidance motivation was substantially higher during the pandemic, and that most of the other fundamental social motives showed small, yet significant, differences across waves. Most sensibly, concern with caring for one's children was higher during the pandemic, and concerns with Mate Seeking and Status were lower. Earlier findings showing the prioritization of family motives over mating motives (and even over Disease Avoidance motives) were replicated during the pandemic. Finally, well-being remained positively associated with family-related motives and negatively associated with mating motives during the pandemic, as in the pre-pandemic samples. Our results provide further evidence for the robust primacy of family-related motivations even during this unique disruption of social life.

Too Many Males or Too Many Females? Classroom Sex Ratio, Life History Strategies and Risk-Taking Behaviors.

Prior research finds that sex ratio, defined as the proportion of males and females in a given context, is related to engagement in risk-taking behaviors. However, most research operationalizes sex ratio at a local context (e.g., regional or county), which fails to reflect with precision the sex ratios contexts of individuals at a closer level. Furthermore, the relationship between sex ratio and risk-taking behaviors may be affected by individuals' life history strategy, with previous studies showing fast life history strategies linked to risk-taking behaviors, compared to slow life history strategies. The present study analyzes the relationship between classroom sex ratio and risk-taking behaviors and the interaction between classroom sex ratio and life history strategy in adolescents. The sample comprised 1214 participants nested in 57 classrooms, 49.75% females, 91.5% Spanish and a mean age of 16.15 years (SD = 1.23, range 14-21). Results from multilevel modeling showed a negative relation between classroom sex ratio and risk-taking behaviors in female adolescents with faster life history strategy. By contrast, classroom sex ratio in male adolescents related positively to risk-taking behaviors but did not interact with life history strategy. These findings underscore the importance of studying proximate sex ratio on risk-taking behaviors in adolescents and underline its potential influence in the development and expression of life history strategies.

The moderating effect of gender as a protective factor against discrimination in migrants from Latin America and China.

This study analysed the association between discrimination and satisfaction with life (SWL) in migrant groups by investigating whether different types of social support (SS; emotional, instrumental, and informational) and networks (family, immigrant and native friends, neighbours, and the community) buffer the negative effects of discrimination on SWL among migrant men and women from different backgrounds. Participants were 631 migrants from Latin America and China residing in Malaga (Spain). We identified behaviour patterns that suggest that SS has different effects on men and women from the same place of origin and similar effects on women and men from different places of origin. In conclusion, the main differences in the effects of SS as a buffer mechanism are not determined by cultural factors. It is more likely that they are determined by differential gender-role socialization, which would lead women to positively value social support.

Influence of time of residence on the sense of community and satisfaction with life in immigrants in Spain: The moderating effects of sociodemographic characteristics.

Migration is an example of adaptation with enduring effects over time and in different cultures. Few studies have analyzed the effect of the sense of community (SOC) on satisfaction with life (SWL) over time while taking into account the moderating effects of sociodemographic characteristics. We propose a model that explains the influence of time of residence on the SOC and SWL. It was hypothesized that the SOC has a positive influence on SWL and that SWL is moderated by sociodemographic characteristics and cultural differences. Participants were 2,211 immigrants residing in Malaga (Spain). Results show a positive association between years of residence and the SOC and the SWL. A positive association was found between the SOC and SWL. This study shows the relevance of analyzing the moderating effects of sociodemographic characteristics in different immigrant groups rather than according to the migration process as a whole to develop specific intervention strategies.

Psychosocial and Sociodemographic Determinants Related to Chronic Diseases in Immigrants Residing in Spain.

The aim of the study is to analyze the effect of the psychosocial determinants of satisfaction with social support, resilience and satisfaction with life, and the sociodemographic determinants of age, gender and length of residence on chronic diseases in immigrants living in Spain. The sample was composed of 1131 immigrants from Africa, Eastern Europe, Latin America and Asia. 47.1% were men and 52.9% were women. Most relevant results point to age as the sociodemographic variable with the highest predictive effect in the six chronic diseases analyzed. Gender, in this case female, predicts arthrosis, chronic back pain and migraine, whereas length of residence was only significant in the case of chronic allergies. Regarding psychosocial variables, resilience is a good predictor of hypertension, chronic allergies and arthrosis. However, satisfaction with social support appears to be the best predictor for chronic back pain in the regression equation, satisfaction with life being a significant variable in migraine, arthrosis, allergies and high cholesterol. Results are notably relevant for the design of preventive health programs in immigrants, as well as in ensuring their appropriate access to the health system so that their chronic diseases can be diagnosed. Given the relevance and incidence of the chronic diseases analyzed in immigrants, preventive strategies should be improved to tackle chronic diseases that can have a serious impact on immigrants' health.

Fundamental social motives measured across forty-two cultures in two waves.

How does psychology vary across human societies? The fundamental social motives framework adopts an evolutionary approach to capture the broad range of human social goals within a taxonomy of ancestrally recurring threats and opportunities. These motives-self-protection, disease avoidance, affiliation, status, mate acquisition, mate retention, and kin care-are high in fitness relevance and everyday salience, yet understudied cross-culturally. Here, we gathered data on these motives in 42 countries (N = 15,915) in two cross-sectional waves, including 19 countries (N = 10,907) for which data were gathered in both waves. Wave 1 was collected from mid-2016 through late 2019 (32 countries, N = 8,998; 3,302 male, 5,585 female; Mage = 24.43, SD = 7.91). Wave 2 was collected from April through November 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic (29 countries, N = 6,917; 2,249 male, 4,218 female; Mage = 28.59, SD = 11.31). These data can be used to assess differences and similarities in people's fundamental social motives both across and within cultures, at different time points, and in relation to other commonly studied cultural indicators and outcomes.

Applying an Evolutionary Approach of Risk-Taking Behaviors in Adolescents.

Risk-taking behaviors in adolescents have traditionally been analyzed from a psychopathological approach, with an excessive emphasis on their potential costs. From evolutionary theory we propose that risk-taking behaviors can be means through which adolescents obtain potential benefits for survival and reproduction. The present study analyses sex differences in three contexts of risk (i.e., risk propensity, expected benefits and risk perception) in the evolutionary specific domains and the predictive value of these domains over risk-taking behaviors, separately in female and male adolescents. 749 adolescents (females = 370) valued their risk perception, expected benefits and risk propensity through the Evolutionary Domain-Specific Risk Scale, as well as their engagement in risk-taking behaviors through the Risky Behavior Questionnaire. Male adolescents showed lower risk perception in two evolutionary domains, expected higher benefits in two other domains and showed higher risk propensity in six domains. Female adolescents showed lower risk perception in two domains. Additionally, risk perception, expected benefits and risk propensity in the evolutionary domains predicted the engagement in risk-taking behaviors in male adolescents, whereas in female adolescents only expected benefits and risk propensity showed a predictive effect over risk-taking behaviors. These results suggest the potential role of evolutionary mechanisms on risk-taking behaviors in adolescents. Results have practical implications for interventions programs aimed at reducing risk-taking behaviors. In addition to considering sex differences, intervention programs should consider alternative behaviors through which adolescents can reach their evolutionary goals, and handle the risks related to those behaviors that cannot be replaced but have potential benefits for adolescents.

Systematic Review of Integration and Radicalization Prevention Programs for Migrants in the US, Canada, and Europe.

Background: International migration processes are some of the most important events of our time. Migrating implies a broad range of factors that affect integration, and which may be linked to radicalization. Host countries use different methods for the integration of migrants. The aim of this systematic review is to analyze intervention programs that aim at promoting social integration and preventing the radicalization of migrants, with the objective of studying actions carried out in the US, Canada, and Europe to this effect. Method: Worldwide known bibliographic databases (PsyCINFO, Sociological Abstracts, Psycarticles, Psychology Database, Medline, SCOPUS, and Google Scholar) were used to search studies published before January 2019 and which analyzed integration or radicalization prevention programs with migrants. Results: A total of 601 studies were screened, from which 18 met the inclusion criteria. The analysis of programs addressed to migrant women points to a decrease in loneliness and depression and an increase of migrants' perception of social support and self-esteem. Programs carried out in schools and families improve children's knowledge of their culture and that of others, increase their feelings of inclusion, and reduce their aggressiveness, stress, and anxiety. Language programs promote communication and employment search, as well as improve migrants' quality of life. One of the most effective activities included in these programs is to connect recently arrived migrants with local population and/or long-term residents. The latter act as mentors and teachers, helping recently arrived migrants understand resources and to be more integrated in the new country, as well as reducing discrimination from the local population. Conclusions: The review concluded the importance of intervention programs for integration, migrants' quality of life, prevention of extreme behaviors, and intercultural cohabitation. Future programs must be more detailed regarding participants' information and carry out more comprehensive assessments.

Discrimination and Psychosocial Well-Being of Migrants in Spain: The Moderating Role of Sense of Community.

The discrimination migrants perceive during their adaptation process is one of the main sources of stress and it affects their well-being, health and integration severely. The present study analyses how the sense of community (SOC) can have a protective effect against the perception of discrimination and its negative consequences by verifying the following theoretical model: discrimination predicts three indicators of psychosocial well-being (psychological distress, satisfaction with life and feelings of social exclusion). Furthermore, the theoretical model proposed also considers the hypothesis that SOC has a moderating role on the effect of perceived discrimination regarding the three variables mentioned above. 1714 migrants from Eastern Europe, Africa and Latin America who live in Málaga, Spain, participated in the study. Data were collected using random-route sampling and survey methodology. After carrying out multiple regression analyses, using the PROCESS tool in SPSS 20, the theoretical model was verified: SOC reduces the negative effects of perceived discrimination for the variables psychological distress, satisfaction with life and social exclusion feelings. Therefore, migrants who have a greater SOC experience fewer negative consequences, as compared to those with a lower SOC, for whom the consequences of such variables are more negative. These results highlight the importance for migrants to rebuild social networks in the host country and develop a good SOC. Results also allow the development of intervention patterns to favor positive interactions between native population and migrants.

Perceived Discrimination, Psychological Distress and Cardiovascular Risk in Migrants in Spain.

The aim of the present study is to determine the effect of discrimination and psychological distress on the cardiovascular health of immigrants, as well as to analyse potential differences based on age, gender, length of residence in host country and geographic origin. The sample was formed by 1714 immigrants from Africa, Eastern Europe and Latin America. Of the sample, 48.7% were men and 51.3% were women. Most relevant results show that discrimination (t = 4.27; p = 0.000) and psychological distress (t = 4.35; p = 0.000) experienced by immigrants predict their cardiovascular risk. Furthermore, psychological distress mediates the relation between discrimination and risk (t = 4.03; p = 0.000). Significant differences between men and women were found, as well as differences based on ethnicity, although to a lesser extent. Age affects the relation between discrimination, psychological distress and arterial hypertension and hypercholesterolemia. Results are notably relevant for the design of preventive health programmes for immigrants and intervention strategies in order to prevent diseases that may imply cardiovascular risks and seriously affect immigrants' health.

Social Networking Sites and Youth Transition: The Use of Facebook and Personal Well-Being of Social Work Young Graduates.

Research on youth transitions, and the well-being of young people, has to take into consideration the digital context in which they are immersed. Digital interaction of young people increase year by year, social networking sites play a key role in their personal and professional relationships, and a very high percentage of jobs require digital skills. According to Eurostat (2019), participating on social networking sites (one of the most common online activities in the EU-28), is growing every year [more than half (56%) of individuals aged 16-74 used the internet for social networking sites], and this percentage increases among the younger generations. In this article, we present the results of our research on the digital skills and well-being of young people on Facebook, based on a survey with a sample of 126 young people graduated from the University of Málaga (School of Social Work) (Spain). Based on certain scales, the level of digital skills that students have on Facebook was measured, considering strategic aspects for information search, level of use and presence of Facebook in life, maintenance of relations and tolerance to diversity. Variables of psychosocial well-being were also measured (social capital, self-esteem, life satisfaction, and personal well-being). Variables of digital skills on Facebook were subsequently related to well-being variables. Results show that certain digital skills relate to the well-being of young people. In this sense, we deem it crucial to develop education policies that could provide young graduates with general digital skills to be used on social networking sites.

Family Matters: Rethinking the Psychology of Human Social Motivation.

What motives do people prioritize in their social lives? Historically, social psychologists, especially those adopting an evolutionary perspective, have devoted a great deal of research attention to sexual attraction and romantic-partner choice (mate seeking). Research on long-term familial bonds (mate retention and kin care) has been less thoroughly connected to relevant comparative and evolutionary work on other species, and in the case of kin care, these bonds have been less well researched. Examining varied sources of data from 27 societies around the world, we found that people generally view familial motives as primary in importance and mate-seeking motives as relatively low in importance. Compared with other groups, college students, single people, and men place relatively higher emphasis on mate seeking, but even those samples rated kin-care motives as more important. Furthermore, motives linked to long-term familial bonds are positively associated with psychological well-being, but mate-seeking motives are associated with anxiety and depression. We address theoretical and empirical reasons why there has been extensive research on mate seeking and why people prioritize goals related to long-term familial bonds over mating goals. Reallocating relatively greater research effort toward long-term familial relationships would likely yield many interesting new findings relevant to everyday people's highest social priorities.

Positive Influences of Social Support on Sense of Community, Life Satisfaction and the Health of Immigrants in Spain.

The main objective of this study was to investigate the association of social support and the sense of community (SOC) with satisfaction with life (SWL) and immigrant health. We propose a model in which perceived social support from close sources (family and friends), as mediated by SOC and life satisfaction, would be positively associated with mental and physical health. Limited evidence exists from multivariate models that concurrently examine the association of both factors with SWL and health-related outcomes. We investigate the hypothesized association in a structural equations model (SEM) analysis. The participants consisted of 1131 immigrants (49% men and 51% women) (age 18-70, M = 33). The study was conducted in Malaga (Spain). Cross-sectional data were collected using a random-route sampling and survey methodology. In this model, greater social support from native friends was associated with a greater SOC. Social support from family and native friends was associated with greater SWL. Also, a greater SOC was associated with greater SWL. No association was found between SOC and mental health symptoms, whereas, greater SWL was associated with fewer mental health and illness symptoms. These results suggest that among immigrants, support networks involving family and native friends, and integration into the community are important influences for immigrants to achieve life satisfaction. These results are widely applicable and have implications that are relevant to the design of health promotion interventions.

Simultaneous multiple stressors in the environment: physiological stress reactions, performance, and stress evaluation.

Interactive effects of two environmental stressors when simultaneous ly present, i.e., noise and crowding, were analyzed. Four experimental conditions with two intensities of stress for each stressor (high versus low) were created. The stressors were concurrently introduced in laboratory conditions and their effects analyzed using several methodological approaches. More intense and negative effects were expected when the two highest intensities of noise and crowding concurred. 40 people (20 men and 20 women) participated in a study with a 2 x 2 factorial design. Analysis showed an increase in the measures of hemodynamic, endocrine, and neuroendocrine values of participants after being exposed simultaneously to noise and crowding. Similarly, their performance on complex tasks decreased, and they reported a subjective increase in stress. Capacity to cope was indicated by a statistically significant lower mean on the Dimension of Stress scale, tolerance of frustration during the multiple stress condition.

Apoyo social, resiliencia y región de origen en la salud mental y la satisfacción vital de los inmigrantes / Social Support, Resilience and Place of Origin in Immigrants' Mental Health and Vital Satisfaction

Resumen Se analiza la relación del apoyo social y la resiliencia con la satisfacción vital y la salud mental de los inmigrantes, y las diferencias en dichas variables según la región de origen (África, Europa, Latinoamérica y Asia). En el estudio han participado 1094 inmigrantes que residen en España. Los resultados de la regresión por pasos muestran que la tenacidad, el apoyo social de la familia y de los autóctonos, y el control personal son los mejores predictores de la satisfacción vital. La tenacidad, el apoyo de la familia y el control lo son de la salud mental.

Abstract We analyze the relationship between social support and resilience with vital satisfaction and mental health in immigrants, and if there are differences in these variables according to the immigrants' place of origin (Africa, Europe, Latin America and Asia). 1094 immigrant subjects who live in Spain have taken part. The stepwise regression results show that tenacity, social support from family and immigrant friends, and personal control are the best predictors of the vital satisfaction. Tenacity, social support from family and personal control are the best predictors of the mental health.