Sky1 regulates the expression of sulfur metabolism genes in response to cisplatin.

Cisplatin is commonly used in cancer therapy and yeast cells are also sensitive to this compound. We present a transcriptome analysis discriminating between RNA changes induced by cisplatin treatment, which are dependent on or independent of SKY1 function--a gene whose deletion increases resistance to the drug. Gene expression changes produced by addition of cisplatin to W303 and W303-Δsky1 cells were recorded using DNA microarrays. The data, validated by quantitative PCR, revealed 122 differentially expressed genes: 69 upregulated and 53 downregulated. Among the upregulated genes, those related to sulfur metabolism were over-represented and partially dependent on Sky1. Deletions of MET4 or other genes encoding co-regulators of the expression of sulfur-metabolism-related genes, with the exception of MET28, did not modify the cisplatin sensitivity of yeast cells. One of the genes with the highest cisplatin-induced upregulation was SEO1, encoding a putative permease of sulfur compounds. We also measured the platinum, sulfur and glutathione content in W303, W303-Δsky1 and W303-Δseo1 cells after cisplatin treatment, and integration of the data suggested that these transcriptional changes might represent a cellular response that allowed chelation of cisplatin with sulfur-containing amino acids and also helped DNA repair by stimulating purine biosynthesis. The transcription pattern of stimulation of sulfur-containing amino acids and purine synthesis decreased, or even disappeared, in the W303-Δsky1 strain.

Proteomic analyses reveal that Sky1 modulates apoptosis and mitophagy in Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells exposed to cisplatin.

Sky1 is the only member of the SR (Serine-Arginine) protein kinase family in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. When yeast cells are treated with the anti-cancer drug cisplatin, Sky1 kinase activity is necessary to produce the cytotoxic effect. In this study, proteome changes in response to this drug and/or SKY1 deletion have been evaluated in order to understand the role of Sky1 in the response of yeast cells to cisplatin. Results reveal differential expression of proteins previously related to the oxidative stress response, DNA damage, apoptosis and mitophagy. With these precedents, the role of Sky1 in apoptosis, necrosis and mitophagy has been evaluated by flow-cytometry, fluorescence microscopy, biosensors and fluorescence techniques. After cisplatin treatment, an apoptotic-like process diminishes in the ∆sky1 strain in comparison to the wild-type. The treatment does not affect mitophagy in the wild-type strain, while an increase is observed in the ∆sky1 strain. The increased resistance to cisplatin observed in the ∆sky1 strain may be attributable to a decrease of apoptosis and an increase of mitophagy.

Structural basis of specificity in tetrameric Kluyveromyces lactis ß-galactosidase.

ß-Galactosidase or lactase is a very important enzyme in the food industry, being that from the yeast Kluyveromyces lactis the most widely used. Here we report its three-dimensional structure both in the free state and complexed with the product galactose. The monomer folds into five domains in a pattern conserved with the prokaryote enzymes of the GH2 family, although two long insertions in domains 2 and 3 are unique and related to oligomerization and specificity. The tetrameric enzyme is a dimer of dimers, with higher dissociation energy for the dimers than for its assembly. Two active centers are located at the interface within each dimer in a narrow channel. The insertion at domain 3 protrudes into this channel and makes putative links with the aglycone moiety of docked lactose. In spite of common structural features related to function, the determinants of the reaction mechanism proposed for Escherichia coli ß-galactosidase are not found in the active site of the K. lactis enzyme. This is the first X-ray crystal structure for a ß-galactosidase used in food processing.

Ixr1p and the control of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae hypoxic response.

In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, adaptation to hypoxia/anaerobiosis requires the transcriptional induction or derepression of multiple genes organized in regulons controlled by specific transcriptional regulators. Ixr1p is a transcriptional regulatory factor that causes aerobic repression of several hypoxic genes (COX5B, TIR1, and HEM13) and also the activation of HEM13 during hypoxic growth. Analysis of the transcriptome of the wild-type strain BY4741 and its isogenic derivative Δixr1, grown in aerobic and hypoxic conditions, reveals differential regulation of genes related not only to the hypoxic and oxidative stress responses but also to the re-adaptation of catabolic and anabolic fluxes in response to oxygen limitation. The function of Ixr1p in the transcriptional regulation of genes from the sulfate assimilation pathway and other pathways producing α-keto acids is of biotechnological importance for industries based on yeast-derived fermentation products.

Two proteins with different functions are derived from the KlHEM13 gene.

Two proteins that differ at the N terminus (l-KlCpo and s-KlCpo) are derived from KlHEM13, a single-copy-number gene in the haploid genome of Kluyveromyces lactis. Two transcriptional start site (tss) pools are detectable using primer extension, and their selection is heme dependent. One of these tss pools is located 5' of the first translation initiation codon (TIC) in the open reading frame of KlHEM13, while the other is located between the first and second TICs. In terms of functional significance, only s-KlCpo complements the heme deficiency caused by the Δhem13 deletion in K. lactis. Data obtained from immune detection in subcellular fractions, directed mutagenesis, chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assays, and the functional relevance of ΔKlhem13 deletion for KlHEM13 promoter activity suggest that l-KlCpo regulates KlHEM13 transcription. A hypothetical model of the evolutionary origins and coexistence of these two proteins in K. lactis is discussed.

SKY1 and IXR1 interactions, their effects on cisplatin and spermine resistance in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

The yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae has been previously used as a model eukaryotic system to identify genes related to drug resistance. Deletion of the IXR1 gene increases resistance to cisplatin, and deletion of the SKY1 gene increases resistance to cisplatin and spermine. Three S. cerevisiae strains and their derivatives, carrying single Δixr1 and Δsky1 and double Δixr1Δsky1 deletions, were compared in terms of resistance against these compounds. We found that the effects of these deletions are highly dependent on the genetic background of the selected strains. These results are valuable in the selection of yeast strains to be used in genetic screenings of compounds with putative pharmacological interest.

The yeast hypoxic responses, resources for new biotechnological opportunities.

Recent advances in the knowledge of molecular mechanisms that control the adaptation to low oxygen levels in yeast and their biotechnological applications, including bioproduct synthesis, such as ethanol, glutathione or recombinant proteins, as well as pathogenic virulence, are reviewed. Possible pathways and target genes, which might be of particular interest for the improvement of biotechnological applications, are evaluated.

Crystallization and preliminary X-ray crystallographic analysis of beta-galactosidase from Kluyveromyces lactis.

Beta-galactosidase from Kluyveromyces lactis catalyses the hydrolysis of the beta-galactosidic linkage in lactose. Owing to its many industrial applications, the biotechnological potential of this enzyme is substantial. This protein has been expressed in yeast and purified for crystallization trials. However, optimization of the best crystallization conditions yielded crystals with poor diffraction quality that precluded further structural studies. Finally, the crystal quality was improved using the streak-seeding technique and a complete diffraction data set was collected at 2.8 A resolution.

Sugar metabolism, redox balance and oxidative stress response in the respiratory yeast Kluyveromyces lactis.

A lot of studies have been carried out on Saccharomyces cerevisiae, an yeast with a predominant fermentative metabolism under aerobic conditions, which allows exploring the complex response induced by oxidative stress. S. cerevisiae is considered a eukaryote model for these studies. We propose Kluyveromyces lactis as a good alternative model to analyse variants in the oxidative stress response, since the respiratory metabolism in this yeast is predominant under aerobic conditions and it shows other important differences with S. cerevisiae in catabolic repression and carbohydrate utilization. The knowledge of oxidative stress response in K. lactis is still a developing field. In this article, we summarize the state of the art derived from experimental approaches and we provide a global vision on the characteristics of the putative K. lactis components of the oxidative stress response pathway, inferred from their sequence homology with the S. cerevisiae counterparts. Since K. lactis is also a well-established alternative host for industrial production of native enzymes and heterologous proteins, relevant differences in the oxidative stress response pathway and their potential in biotechnological uses of this yeast are also reviewed.

Ixr1 Regulates Ribosomal Gene Transcription and Yeast Response to Cisplatin.

Ixr1 is a Saccharomyces cerevisiae HMGB protein that regulates the hypoxic regulon and also controls the expression of other genes involved in the oxidative stress response or re-adaptation of catabolic and anabolic fluxes when oxygen is limiting. Ixr1 also binds with high affinity to cisplatin-DNA adducts and modulates DNA repair. The influence of Ixr1 on transcription in the absence or presence of cisplatin has been analyzed in this work. Ixr1 regulates other transcriptional factors that respond to nutrient availability or extracellular and intracellular stress stimuli, some controlled by the TOR pathway and PKA signaling. Ixr1 controls transcription of ribosomal RNAs and genes encoding ribosomal proteins or involved in ribosome assembly. qPCR, ChIP, and 18S and 25S rRNAs measurement have confirmed this function. Ixr1 binds directly to several promoters of genes related to rRNA transcription and ribosome biogenesis. Cisplatin treatment mimics the effect of IXR1 deletion on rRNA and ribosomal gene transcription, and prevents Ixr1 binding to specific promoters related to these processes.

Characterization of the second external alternative dehydrogenase from mitochondria of the respiratory yeast Kluyveromyces lactis.

The mitochondria of the respiratory yeast Kluyveromyces lactis are able to reoxidize cytosolic NADPH. Previously, we characterized an external alternative dehydrogenase, KlNde1p, having this activity. We now characterize the second external alternative dehydrogenase of K. lactis mitochondria, KlNde2p. We examined its role in cytosolic NADPH reoxidation by studying heterologous expression of KlNDE2 in Saccharomyces cerevisiae mutants and by constructing Deltaklnde1 and Deltaklnde2 mutants. KlNde2p uses NADH or NADPH as substrates, its activity in isolated mitochondria is not regulated by exogenously added calcium and it is not down-regulated when the cells grow in glucose versus lactate. KlNde2p shows lower affinity for NADPH than KlNde1p. Both enzymes show similar pH optimum.

Engineered autolytic yeast strains secreting Kluyveromyces lactis beta-galactosidase for production of heterologous proteins in lactose media.

Secretion of the heterologous Kluyveromyces lactis beta-galactosidase into culture medium by several Saccharomyces cerevisiae osmotic-remedial thermosensitive-autolytic mutants was assayed and proved that new metabolic abilities were conferred since the constructed strains were able to grow in lactose-containing media. Cell growth became independent of a lactose-uptake mechanism. Higher levels of extra-cellular and intra-cellular beta-galactosidase production, lactose consumption and growth were obtained with the LHDP1 strain, showing a thermosensitive-autolytic phenotype as well as being peptidase-defective. The recombinant strain LHDP1 presented the highest beta-galactosidase yields from biomass and the lowest ethanol levels from lactose. This strain is effective for the heterologous production and release of K. lactis beta-galactosidase into the extra-cellular medium after osmotic shock.

Kluyveromyces lactis: a suitable yeast model to study cellular defense mechanisms against hypoxia-induced oxidative stress.

Studies about hypoxia-induced oxidative stress in human health disorders take advantage from the use of unicellular eukaryote models. A widely extended model is the fermentative yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. In this paper, we describe an overview of the molecular mechanisms induced by a decrease in oxygen availability and their interrelationship with the oxidative stress response in yeast. We focus on the differential characteristics between S. cerevisiae and the respiratory yeast Kluyveromyces lactis, a complementary emerging model, in reference to multicellular eukaryotes.

Heterologous expression of an esterase from Thermus thermophilus HB27 in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

In this work, a system for high-level secretion by Saccharomyces cerevisiae of the Thermus thermophilus HB27 putative esterase YP_004875.1 was constructed. The recombinant protein was purified and partially characterised. Its lipolytic activity dropped abruptly when the acyl chain length of the substrate increased from 12 to 18 carbon atoms, and variation of the reaction rate as function of substrate concentration followed Michaelis-Menten kinetics. These results suggested that the enzyme was an esterase. The recombinant enzyme was N-glycosylated and both the glycosylated and non-glycosylated forms showed activity. Compared to the native enzyme, thermal stability (half-life of 4.3h at 85 degrees C) was higher, optimum temperature (40 degrees C) was lower and optimum pH (7.5-8.5) was similar. These characteristics support potential biotechnological applications of the recombinant esterase.

An approach to the hypoxic and oxidative stress responses in Kluyveromyces lactis by analysis of mRNA levels.

Genome duplication, after the divergence of Saccharomyces cerevisiae from Kluyveromyces lactis along evolution, has been proposed as a mechanism of yeast evolution from strict aerobics, such as Candida albicans, to facultatives/fermentatives, such as S. cerevisiae. This feature, together with the preponderance of respiration and the use of the pentose phosphate pathway in glucose utilization, makes K. lactis a model yeast for studies related to carbon and oxygen metabolism. In this work, and based on the knowledge of the sequence of the genome of K. lactis, obtained by the Génolevures project, we have constructed DNA arrays from K. lactis including a limited amount of selected probes. They are related to the aerobiosis-hypoxia adaptation and to the oxidative stress response, and have been used to test changes in mRNA levels in response to hypoxia and oxidative stress generated by H(2)O(2). The study was carried out in both wild-type and rag2 mutant K. lactis strains in which glycolysis is blocked at the phosphoglucose isomerase step. This approach is the first analysis carried out in K. lactis for the majority of the genes selected.

Functional characterization of KlHEM13, a hypoxic gene of Kluyveromyces lactis.

The KlHEM13 gene of Kluyveromyces lactis encoding the coproporphyrinogen oxidase (EC 1.3.3.3), an oxygen-requiring enzyme that catalyzes the sixth step of heme biosynthesis, was cloned and functionally characterized. The coding and upstream regions of KlHEM13 were analyzed and the putative cis regulatory elements were discussed in relation to the mechanisms of regulation of this hypoxic gene in K. lactis.

Genome-wide analysis of Kluyveromyces lactis in wild-type and rag2 mutant strains.

The use of heterologous DNA arrays from Saccharomyces cerevisiae has been tested and revealed as a suitable tool to compare the transcriptomes of S. cerevisiae and Kluyveromyces lactis, two yeasts with notable differences in their respirofermentative metabolism. The arrays have also been applied to study the changes in the K. lactis transcriptome owing to mutation in the RAG2 gene coding for the glycolytic enzyme phosphoglucose isomerase. Comparison of the rag2 mutant growing in 2% glucose versus 2% fructose has been used as a model to elucidate the importance of transcriptional regulation of metabolic routes, which may be used to reoxidize the NADPH produced in the pentose phosphate pathway. At this transcriptional level, routes related to the oxidative stress response become an interesting alternative for NADPH use.

Isolation and transcriptional regulation of the Kluyveromyces lactis FBA1 (fructose-1,6-bisphosphate aldolase) gene.

Cloning and transcriptional regulation of the KlFBA1 gene that codes for the class II fructose-1,6-bisphosphate aldolase of the yeast Kluyveromyces lactis are described. KlFBA1 mRNA diminishes transiently during the shift from hypoxic to fully aerobic conditions and increases in the reversal shift. This regulation is mediated by heme since expression was higher in a mutant defective in heme biosynthesis. KlFBA1 transcription is not induced by calcium-shortage, low temperature, or at stationary phase. These data suggest that KlFBA1 plays a role in the balance between oxidative and fermentative metabolism and that this gene is differentially regulated in K. lactis and Saccharomyces cerevisiae, i.e., a respiratory vs. fermentative yeast.