A Study to Measure Sexual Dysfunction among Women of Reproductive Age Group with Diabetes Mellitus Attending the Outpatient Department of a Tertiary Care Hospital in Kolkata.

Sexual dysfunction in Diabetes is an under-investigated problem, especially in women. The research barriers surrounding the issue of female sexual dysfunction are manifold and difficult to surpass, especially in the context of the Asian Subcontinent, where a multitude of sociocultural factors suppress the expression of distress. Early screening, diagnosis, and counselling can help in managing female sexual dysfunction in Diabetes Mellitus and positively impact the lives of many women. This study was undertaken to find the prevalence of sexual dysfunction among diabetic women of reproductive age group, its relation to BMI, duration of Diabetes and microvascular complications, and to find its sociodemographic associations. MATERIAL: A descriptive, observational study was carried out over a period of 1 year. 250 purposively sampled women attending the diabetic outpatient department of a tertiary care hospital were enrolled. All were known diabetic, between the ages of 30 and 44 years. A detailed history was obtained with the aid of a case record form which included the FSFI (Female Sexual Function Index), and a demographic questionnaire, after proper explanation in their own local vernacular as per their literacy level. Available medical records were used for finding the duration of diabetes, and associated diabetes related microvascular complications. OBSERVATION: Prevalence of FSD among the study population was 73.6%. A significant association was found between age and sexual dysfunction (p<0.05). It was found to be more among the Hindus, compared to the Muslims (p<0.05). There was a significant association with BMI (>25kg/m2), increasing duration of Diabetes, and the presence of microvascular complications (p<0.05). In fact, all patients with microvascular complications were experiencing some degree of sexual dysfunction. No association was found with socioeconomic status, literacy, addiction, occupation or type of family. CONCLUSION: Female sexual health issues in Diabetes are a neglected area, both in the clinic as well as in research, yet sexual health problems in this group may be more common than previously recognised. Low FSFI scores are associated with increasing age, higher BMI and increasing duration of Diabetes. Future studies may identify appropriate ways to probe and explore the related issues for early screening, and help establish the role of newer treatments.

First Observation of Multiple Transverse Wobbling Bands of Different Kinds in

We report the first observation of two wobbling bands in ^{183}Au, both of which were interpreted as the transverse wobbling (TW) band but with different behavior of their wobbling energies as a function of spin. It increases (decreases) with spin for the positive (negative) parity configuration. The crucial evidence for the wobbling nature of the bands, dominance of the E2 component in the ΔI=1 transitions between the partner bands, is provided by the simultaneous measurements of directional correlation from the oriented states ratio and the linear polarization of the γ rays. Particle rotor model calculations with triaxial deformation reproduce the experimental data well. A value of spin, I_{m}, has been determined for the observed TW bands below which the wobbling energy increases and above which it decreases with spin. The nucleus ^{183}Au is, so far, the only nucleus in which both the increasing and the decreasing parts are observed and thus gives the experimental evidence of the complete transverse wobbling phenomenon.

Synthesis of sulpha drug based hydroxytriazene derivatives: Anti-diabetic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory activity and their molecular docking studies.

Herein, we report synthesis, characterization, anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant activities of hydroxytriazenes derived from sulpha drugs, namely sulphanilamide, sulphadiazine, sulphapyridine and sulphamethazine. Before biological screening of the compounds, theoretical prediction using PASS was done which indicates probable activities ranging from Pa (probable activity) values 65-98% for anti-inflammatory activity. As per the predication, experimental validation of some of the predicted activities particularly anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant was done. Anti-diabetic activities have been screened using two methods namely α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibition method and IC50 values were ranging from 66 to 260 and 148 to 401 µg/mL, while for standard drug acarbose the values were 12 µg/mL and 70 µg/mL, respectively. Docking studies have also been done for antidiabetic target pancreatic alpha amylase. The molecular docking studies in α-amylase enzyme reveal that the middle phenyl ring of all the compounds mainly occupies in the small hydrophobic pocket formed by the Ala198, Trp58, Leu162, Leu165 and Ile235 residues and sulphonamide moiety establish H-bond interaction by two water molecules. Further, anti-inflammatory activity has been evaluated using carrageenan induced paw-edema method and results indicate excellent anti-inflammatory activity by hydroxytriazenes (71 to 97%) and standard drug diclofenac 94% after 4 h of treatment. Moreover, antioxidant effect of the compounds was tested using DPPH and ABTS methods. All the compounds displayed good results (24-488 µg/mL) against ABTS radical and many compounds are more active than ascorbic acid (69 µg/mL) while all other compounds showed moderate activity against DPPH radical (292-774 µg/mL) and ascorbic acid (29 µg/mL). Thus, the studies reveal potential of sulfa drug based hydroxytriazenes as candidates for antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities which have been experimentally validated.

An indigenous strain of potassium-solubilizing bacteria Bacillus pseudomycoides enhanced potassium uptake in tea plants by increasing potassium availability in the mica waste-treated soil of North-east India.

AIM: Potassium (K) is one of the three major nutrients required of plant growth and muriate of potash (MoP) is the only recognized chemical fertilizer used in agriculture. In many countries, 100% of the applied MoP is imported costing huge revenue. Application of suitable potassium-solubilizing bacteria (KSB) as biofertilizer could be an integral part of K management in arable soil. The object of this study was to evaluate K-solubilizing ability of a ubiquitous micro-organism as KSB to supplement K in soil. METHODS AND RESULTS: Strain (O-5) was isolated from tea-growing soil and identified as Bacillus pseudomycoides. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the nearest neighbours of B. pseudomycoides strain O-5 were Bacillus cereus, Bacillus thuringiensis and Bacillus toyonensis. Though the species was first identified in 1998 and is ubiquitous in soil, the role of this group of micro-organisms in nutrient cycling in soil has not been studied before. Strain solubilized 33·32 ± 2·40 µg K ml-1 in mica waste (MW; muscovite type mineral)-amended broth after 7 days incubation at 30 ± 1°C. In a soil microcosm study under laboratory condition, B. pseudomycoides strain O-5 increased K availability by 47·0 ± 7·1 mg kg-1 after 105 days incubation, while the strain released 104·9 ± 15·3 mg K kg-1 in MW-treated soil. In this study, application of isolated B. pseudomycoides with MW significantly increased K availability in soil, and that in turn facilitated K uptake by tea plants. CONCLUSION: Based on the data, it could be inferred that B. pseudomycoides could mobilize K from bound form in soil and can be utilized as K-solubilizing biofertilizer especially in combination with MW for supplementing K in soil. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Bacillus pseudomycoides strain O-5 has potential to be used as K-solubilizing biofertilizer in agriculture.

Factors impacting on technical success in stroke thrombectomy: experience of a UK neuro-interventional unit.

AIM: To investigate factors that could impact on recanalisation and reperfusion in patients undergoing mechanical thrombectomy and to assess the technical success over time. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Two hundred consecutive patients who underwent thrombectomy for a proximal anterior circulation occlusion were dichotomised into equal groups (groups 1 and 2) based on the date that immediate access to emergency general anaesthesia (GA) commenced. RESULTS: Recanalisation success using thrombolysis in cerebral infarction (TICI) 2b/3 or TICI 2c/3 significantly improved in group 2 (67% versus 93%, p<0.0001; 52% versus 78%, p=0.0002). Symptomatic haemorrhage also reduced from 9% to 4%. Despite similar presentation Alberta Stroke Program Early (computed tomography) CT Scores (ASPECTS), post-procedural ASPECTS was significantly increased in group 2 (7; [interquartile range {IQR} 4-9] versus 8 [IQR 7-9]; p=0.0034). The number of patients with a post procedural ASPECTS of 8-10 increased (46% versus 64%, p=0.0155) and the difference in ASPECTS between pre- and post-thrombectomy CT was significantly lower (2 [IQR 1-4] versus 1 [IQR 0-2], p<0.0001). GA use increased from 8% to 56% (p=0.0001) as did use of distal aspiration (59% versus 87%, p=0.0001) mostly in combination with a stent-retriever. Failed access fell from 8% to 3%. When GA was used, successful recanalisation (TICI 2b/3) was achieved more frequently (90.5% versus 76.7%; OR 3.04, 1.2-7.69, p=0.0187). CONCLUSION: Technical results for thrombectomy are improving over time. Technique modification, operator experience, and judicious use of GA may be contributing.

Expression profile of pattern recognition receptors in skeletal muscle of SOD1(G93A) amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) mice and sporadic ALS patients.

AIMS: Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is characterized by degeneration of motoneurons and progressive muscle wasting. Inflammatory processes, mediated by non-neuronal cells, such as glial cells, are known to contribute to disease progression. Inflammasomes consist of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), apoptosis-associated speck-like protein (ASC) and caspase 1 and are essential for interleukin (IL) processing and a rapid immune response after tissue damage. Recently, we described inflammasome activation in the spinal cord of ALS patients and in SOD1(G93A) ALS mice. Since pathological changes in the skeletal muscle are early events in ALS, we hypothesized that PRRs might be abnormally expressed in muscle fibre degeneration. METHODS: Western blot analysis, real-time PCR and immunohistochemistry were performed with muscle tissue from presymptomatic and early-symptomatic male SOD1(G93A) mice and with muscle biopsies of control and sporadic ALS (sALS) patients. Analysed PRRs include nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like (NOD-like) receptor protein 1 (NLRP1), NLR protein 3 (NLRP3), NLR family CARD domain-containing 4 (NLRC4) and absent in melanoma 2. Additionally, expression levels of ASC, caspase 1, interleukin 1 beta (IL1ß) and interleukin 18 (IL18) were evaluated. RESULTS: Expression of PRRs and ASC was detected in murine and human tissue. The PRR NLRC4, caspase 1 and IL1ß were significantly elevated in denervated muscle of SOD1(G93A) mice and sALS patients. Furthermore, levels of caspase 1 and IL1ß were already increased in presymptomatic animals. CONCLUSION: Our findings suggest that increased inflammasome activation may be involved in skeletal muscle pathology in ALS. Furthermore, elevated levels of NLRC4, caspase 1 and IL1ß reflect early changes in the skeletal muscle and may contribute to the denervation process.

Isotensor Dibaryon in the pp→ppπ

Exclusive measurements of the quasifree pp→ppπ^{+}π^{-} reaction have been carried out at WASA@COSY by means of pd collisions at T_{p}=1.2 GeV. Total and differential cross sections have been extracted covering the energy region T_{p}=1.08-1.36 GeV, which is the region of N^{*}(1440) and Δ(1232)Δ(1232) resonance excitations. Calculations describing these excitations by t-channel meson exchange are at variance with the measured differential cross sections and underpredict substantially the experimental total cross section. An isotensor ΔN dibaryon resonance with I(J^{P})=2(1^{+}) produced associatedly with a pion is able to overcome these deficiencies.

Spin Dependence of η Meson Production in Proton-Proton Collisions Close to Threshold.

Taking advantage of the high acceptance and axial symmetry of the WASA-at-COSY detector, and the high polarization degree of the proton beam of COSY, the reaction p[over →]p→ppη has been measured close to threshold to explore the analyzing power A_{y}. The angular distribution of A_{y} is determined with the precision improved by more than 1 order of magnitude with respect to previous results, allowing a first accurate comparison with theoretical predictions. The determined analyzing power is consistent with zero for an excess energy of Q=15 MeV, signaling s-wave production with no evidence for higher partial waves. At Q=72 MeV the data reveal strong interference of Ps and Pp partial waves and cancellation of (Pp)^{2} and Ss^{*}Sd contributions. These results rule out the presently available theoretical predictions for the production mechanism of the η meson.

The impact of phylogenetic dating method on interpreting trait evolution: a case study of Cretaceous-Palaeogene eutherian body-size evolution.

The fossil record of the earliest Cenozoic contains the first large-bodied placental mammals. Several evolutionary models have been invoked to explain the transition from small to large body sizes, but methods for determining evolutionary mode of trait change depend on input from tree topology and divergence dates. Different dating methods may therefore affect inference of evolutionary model. Here, we fit models of body mass evolution onto dated phylogenies of Cretaceous and Palaeogene mammals, comparing the effect of dating method on interpretation of evolutionary model. Among traditional palaeontological dating approaches, an Ornstein-Uhlenbeck model with high alpha parameters is recovered as best-fitting when minimum-age dating is used, while branch-sharing methods are highly sensitive to topology. Release or release-radiate models are preferred when Bayesian fossilized birth-death method is used, but when using stochastic cal3 dating of trees, a model of increased evolutionary rate without a release in constraint at the Cretaceous-Palaeogene boundary has highest support. These results demonstrate unambiguously that choice of dating method is critical for interpretation of continuous trait evolution, and that care must therefore be taken to consider these effects in macroevolutionary studies.

Synthesis, characterization, theoretical prediction of activities and evaluation of biological activities of some sulfacetamide based hydroxytriazenes.

Six new N [(4-aminophenyl)sulfonyl]acetamide based hydroxytriazenes have been synthesized and characterized using elemental analysis, IR, 1H NMR, 13C NMR and MASS spectral analysis. Further, their theoretical predictions for probable activities have been taken using PASS (Prediction of Activity Spectra for Substance). Although a number of activities have been predicted but specifically anti-inflammatory, antiradical, anti-diabetic activities have been experimentally validated which proves that theoretical predictions agree with the experimental results. The object of the Letter is to establish Computer Aided Drug Design (CADD) using our compounds.

Assessment of home hazards for childhood injuries in an urban population in New Delhi.

BACKGROUND: Childhood injuries, especially the unintentional category of injuries, occur most commonly in the environment inside a child's home. The primary objective of the present study was to assess the presence of home hazards for childhood injuries in households in an urban resettlement colony in New Delhi. METHODS: A community-based cross-sectional study was carried out in an urban resettlement colony in Delhi. A hazards assessment tool was used to check the presence of hazards in the houses. RESULTS: A total of 225 households were included. It was seen that121 (53.7%) had a cooking stove within the reach of the child, and 190 (84.3%) had the gas pipe within reach. Fire hazard was seen in 84% of houses. About 78% of households did not have locked storage for chemicals. CONCLUSION: The study revealed a significant burden of hazards for childhood injuries within their own homes, thus emphasizing the need for injury prevention interventions to reduce the number of hazards.

Altered localization, abnormal modification and loss of function of Sigma receptor-1 in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

Intracellular accumulations of mutant, misfolded proteins are major pathological hallmarks of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and related disorders. Recently, mutations in Sigma receptor 1 (SigR1) have been found to cause a form of ALS and frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD). Our goal was to pinpoint alterations and modifications of SigR1 in ALS and to determine how these changes contribute to the pathogenesis of ALS. In the present study, we found that levels of the SigR1 protein were reduced in lumbar ALS patient spinal cord. SigR1 was abnormally accumulated in enlarged C-terminals and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) structures of alpha motor neurons. These accumulations co-localized with the 20s proteasome subunit. SigR1 accumulations were also observed in SOD1 transgenic mice, cultured ALS-8 patient's fibroblasts with the P56S-VAPB mutation and in neuronal cell culture models. Along with the accumulation of SigR1 and several other proteins involved in protein quality control, severe disturbances in the unfolded protein response and impairment of protein degradation pathways were detected in the above-mentioned cell culture systems. Furthermore, shRNA knockdown of SigR1 lead to deranged calcium signaling and caused abnormalities in ER and Golgi structures in cultured NSC-34 cells. Finally, pharmacological activation of SigR1 induced the clearance of mutant protein aggregates in these cells. Our results support the notion that SigR1 is abnormally modified and contributes to the pathogenesis of ALS.

Big cat, small cat: reconstructing body size evolution in living and extinct Felidae.

The evolution of body mass is a fundamental topic in evolutionary biology, because it is closely linked to manifold life history and ecological traits and is readily estimable for many extinct taxa. In this study, we examine patterns of body mass evolution in Felidae (Placentalia, Carnivora) to assess the effects of phylogeny, mode of evolution, and the relationship between body mass and prey choice in this charismatic mammalian clade. Our data set includes 39 extant and 26 extinct taxa, with published body mass data supplemented by estimates based on condylobasal length. These data were run through 'SURFACE' and 'bayou' to test for patterns of body mass evolution and convergence between taxa. Body masses of felids are significantly different among prey choice groupings (small, mixed and large). We find that body mass evolution in cats is strongly influenced by phylogeny, but different patterns emerged depending on inclusion of extinct taxa and assumptions about branch lengths. A single Ornstein-Uhlenbeck optimum best explains the distribution of body masses when first-occurrence data were used for the fossil taxa. However, when mean occurrence dates or last known occurrence dates were used, two selective optima for felid body mass were recovered in most analyses: a small optimum around 5 kg and a large one around 100 kg. Across living and extinct cats, we infer repeated evolutionary convergences towards both of these optima, but, likely due to biased extinction of large taxa, our results shift to supporting a Brownian motion model when only extant taxa are included in analyses.

Redox decomposition of silver citrate complex in nanoscale confinement: an unusual mechanism of formation and growth of silver nanoparticles.

We demonstrate for the first time the intrinsic role of nanoconfinement in facilitating the chemical reduction of metal ion precursors with a suitable reductant for the synthesis of metal nanoparticles, when the identical reaction does not occur in bulk solution. Taking the case of citrate reduction of silver ions under the unusual condition of [citrate]/[Ag(+)] ≫ 1, it has been observed that the silver citrate complex, stable in bulk solution, decomposes readily in confined nanodomains of charged and neutral matrices (ion-exchange film and porous polystyrene beads), leading to the formation of silver nanoparticles. The evolution of growth of silver nanoparticles in the ion-exchange films has been studied using a combination of (110m)Ag radiotracer, small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) experiments, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). It has been observed that the nanoconfined redox decomposition of silver citrate complex is responsible for the formation of Ag seeds, which thereafter catalyze oxidation of citrate and act as electron sink for subsequent reduction of silver ions. Because of these parallel processes, the particle sizes are in the bimodal distribution at some stages of the reaction. A continuous seeding with parallel growth mechanism has been revealed. Based on the SAXS data and radiotracer kinetics, the growth mechanism has been elucidated as a combination of continuous autoreduction of silver ions on the nanoparticle surfaces and a sudden coalescence of nanoparticles at a critical number density. However, for a fixed period of reduction, the size, size distribution, and number density of thus-formed Ag nanoparticles have been found to be dependent on physical architecture and chemical composition of the matrix.

Human consumption of rumen flukes of cattle in India.

The practice of eating rumen flukes of cattle by a section of people living in Meghalaya, a north eastern State of India, is reported in this communication. Economically backward, some rural people belonging to Khasi, Jaintia, Garo, and Karbi tribes of Christian and Nepali communities who eat beef are accustomed to consuming cooked flukes during breakfast, meals, and also along with rice beer or alcohol. Inspection of the rumens of cattle during slaughter indicated a prevalence of flukes belonging to Cotylophoron, Paramphistomum, Calicophoron, Gastrothylax, and Fischoederius genera in 74% cases, and their collection from rumen ranged approximately from 50 g to 600 g. Biochemical analysis of flukes found 12.60% total protein, 0.78% fat, and 0.87% ash on fresh weight basis. High prevalence of flukes, easy visualization in rumen, their bulk collection, presence of nutritive value, absence of any ill effect, and lack of imminent danger of transmissibility are believed to be the rationales influencing their consumption by people. It is suggested that dietary benefits obtained from flukes might contribute to the energy transfer and inclusion in the food web.

Patterns and implications of extensive heterochrony in carnivoran cranial suture closure.

Heterochronic changes in the rate or timing of development underpin many evolutionary transformations. In particular, the onset and rate of bone development have been the focus of many studies across large clades. In contrast, the termination of bone growth, as estimated by suture closure, has been studied far less frequently, although a few recent studies have shown this to represent a variable, although poorly understood, aspect of developmental evolution. Here, we examine suture closure patterns across 25 species of carnivoran mammals, ranging from social-insectivores to hypercarnivores, to assess variation in suture closure across taxa, identify heterochronic shifts in a phylogenetic framework and elucidate the relationship between suture closure timing and ecology. Our results show that heterochronic shifts in suture closure are widespread across Carnivora, with several shifts identified for most major clades. Carnivorans differ from patterns identified for other mammalian clades in showing high variability of palatal suture closure, no correlation between size and level of suture closure, and little phylogenetic signal outside of musteloids. Results further suggest a strong influence of feeding ecology on suture closure pattern. Most of the species with high numbers of heterochronic shifts, such as the walrus and the aardwolf, feed on invertebrates, and these taxa also showed high frequency of closure of the mandibular symphysis, a state that is relatively rare among mammals. Overall, caniforms displayed more heterochronic shifts than feliforms, suggesting that evolutionary changes in suture closure may reflect the lower diversity of cranial morphology in feliforms.

Getting a grip on the evolution of grasping in musteloid carnivorans: a three-dimensional analysis of forelimb shape.

The ability to grasp and manipulate is often considered a hallmark of hominins and associated with the evolution of their bipedal locomotion and tool use. Yet, many other mammals use their forelimbs to grasp and manipulate objects. Previous investigations have suggested that grasping may be derived from digging behaviour, arboreal locomotion or hunting behaviour. Here, we test the arboreal origin of grasping and investigate whether an arboreal lifestyle could confer a greater grasping ability in musteloid carnivorans. Moreover, we investigate the morphological adaptations related to grasping and the differences between arboreal species with different grasping abilities. We predict that if grasping is derived from an arboreal lifestyle, then the anatomical specializations of the forelimb for arboreality must be similar to those involved in grasping. We further predict that arboreal species with a well-developed manipulation ability will have articulations that facilitate radio-ulnar rotation. We use ancestral character state reconstructions of lifestyle and grasping ability to understand the evolution of both traits. Finally, we use a surface sliding semi-landmark approach capable of quantifying the articulations in their full complexity. Our results largely confirm our predictions, demonstrating that musteloids with greater grasping skills differ markedly from others in the shape of their forelimb bones. These analyses further suggest that the evolution of an arboreal lifestyle likely preceded the development of enhanced grasping ability.

Supramolecular reactive sulphur nanoparticles: a novel and efficient antimicrobial agent.

Antimicrobial resistance continues to be an inexorable threat for the biomedical and biochemical researchers. Despite the novel discoveries in drug designing and delivery, high-throughput screening and surveillance data render the prospects for new antimicrobial agents as bleak as ever. The advent of nanotechnology, however, strengthens pharmacology by offering effective therapeutics to treat this aforementioned problem. Several nanoparticles of the known elements have already been reported for their antimicrobial efficacy. Nanosized fabrication of elemental sulphur with suitable surface modifications offers to retrieve the use of sulphur (man's oldest known ecofriendly microbicide) as a potential antimicrobial agent. Sulphur nanoparticles (SNPs) are effective against both conventionally sulphur-resistant and sulphur-susceptible microbes (fungi and bacteria). Moreover, biocompatible polymers present on the surface of SNPs minimize toxicity during application. Here, we focus on various aspects of physicochemical features of SNPs and their biochemical interactions with microbes. The present review also illustrates the effects of SNPs on plants and animals in terms of cytotoxicity and biocompatibility.

High-Density Geometric Morphometric Analysis of Intraspecific Cranial Integration in the Barred Grass Snake (Natrix helvetica) and Green Anole (Anolis carolinensis).

How do phenotypic associations intrinsic to an organism, such as developmental and mechanical processes, direct morphological evolution? Comparisons of intraspecific and clade-wide patterns of phenotypic covariation could inform how population-level trends ultimately dictate macroevolutionary changes. However, most studies have focused on analyzing integration and modularity either at macroevolutionary or intraspecific levels, without a shared analytical framework unifying these temporal scales. In this study, we investigate the intraspecific patterns of cranial integration in two squamate species: Natrix helvetica and Anolis carolinensis. We analyze their cranial integration patterns using the same high-density three-dimensional geometric morphometric approach used in a prior squamate-wide evolutionary study. Our results indicate that Natrix and Anolis exhibit shared intraspecific cranial integration patterns, with some differences, including a more integrated rostrum in the latter. Notably, these differences in intraspecific patterns correspond to their respective interspecific patterns in snakes and lizards, with few exceptions. These results suggest that interspecific patterns of cranial integration reflect intraspecific patterns. Hence, our study suggests that the phenotypic associations that direct morphological variation within species extend across micro- and macroevolutionary levels, bridging these two scales.

Shape, variance and integration during craniogenesis: contrasting marsupial and placental mammals.

Studies of morphological integration can provide insight into developmental patterns, even in extinct taxa known only from skeletal remains, thus making them an important tool for studies of evolutionary development. However, interpreting patterns of integration and assessing their significance for organismal evolution requires detailed understanding of the developmental interactions that shape integration and how those interactions change through ontogeny. Thus far, relatively little comparative data have been produced for this important topic, and the data that do exist are overwhelmingly from humans and their close relatives or from laboratory models such as mice. Here, we compare data on shape, variance and integration through postnatal ontogeny for a placental mammal, the least shrew, Cryptotis parva, and a marsupial mammal, the gray short-tailed opossum, Monodelphis domestica. Cranial variance decreased dramatically from early to late ontogeny in Cryptotis, but remained stable through ontogeny in Monodelphis, potentially reflecting functional constraints related to the short gestation and early ossification of oral bones in marsupials. Both Cryptotis and Monodelphis showed significant changes in cranial integration through ontogeny, with a mixture of increased, decreased and stable levels of integration in different cranial regions. Of particular note is that Monodelphis showed an unambiguous decrease in integration of the oral region through ontogeny, potentially relating to their early ossification. Selection at different stages of development may have markedly different effects if patterns of integration change substantially through ontogeny. Our results suggest that high integration of the oral region combined with functional constraints for suckling during early postnatal ontogeny may drive the stagnant variance observed in Monodelphis and potentially other marsupials.