Direct Oral FXa Inhibitors Binding to Human Serum Albumin: Spectroscopic, Calorimetric, and Computational Studies.

Direct FXa inhibitors are an important class of bioactive molecules (rivaroxaban, apixaban, edoxaban, and betrixaban) applied for thromboprophylaxis in diverse cardiovascular pathologies. The interaction of active compounds with human serum albumin (HSA), the most abundant protein in blood plasma, is a key research area and provides crucial information about drugs' pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamic properties. This research focuses on the study of the interactions between HSA and four commercially available direct oral FXa inhibitors, applying methodologies including steady-state and time-resolved fluorescence, isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC), and molecular dynamics. The HSA complexation of FXa inhibitors was found to occur via static quenching, and the complex formation in the ground states affects the fluorescence of HSA, with a moderate binding constant of 104 M-1. However, the ITC studies reported significantly different binding constants (103 M-1) compared with the results obtained through spectrophotometric methods. The suspected binding mode is supported by molecular dynamics simulations, where the predominant interactions were hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions (mainly π-π stacking interactions between the phenyl ring of FXa inhibitors and the indole moiety of Trp214). Finally, the possible implications of the obtained results regarding pathologies such as hypoalbuminemia are briefly discussed.

Supramolecular co-encapsulation of a photosensitizer and chemotherapeutic drug in cucurbit[8]uril for potential chemophototherapy.

Supramolecular strategies as well as combinatorial approaches have been proposed to improve cancer therapeutics. In this work, we investigated the encapsulation of the photosensitizer acridine orange (AO) and the chemotherapeutic drug oxaliplatin (OxPt) in cucurbit[8]uril (CB[8]), and tested their effect both separate and combined on tumoral cells cultivated in vitro. Binding constants and enthalpies of reaction for the AO@CB[8], (AO)2@CB[8] and OxPt@CB[8] complexes were determined by isothermal titration calorimetry. In the case of AO, a negative cooperativity for the binding of the second AO molecule was found, in agreement with previous fluorescence titration data. We show herein that the AO@CB[8] complex was effectively incorporated within the cells and showed important phototoxicity, while the OxPt@CB[8] complex was cytotoxic only at long incubation times (24 h). Pre-treatment of the cells with the OxPt@CB[8] complex for 24 h inhibited any photodynamic action by the later treatment with the AO@CB[8] complex. However, when both complexes were co-incubated for 90 min, the combined cytotoxicity/phototoxicity was superior to any of the treatments individually. A cooperative effect was identified that added up to an extra 30% cytotoxicity/phototoxicity. The results point to an interesting system where a photosensitizer and chemotherapeutic drug are co-encapsulated in a macrocycle to develop chemophototherapy applications.

Recent Photosensitizer Developments, Delivery Strategies and Combination-based Approaches for Photodynamic Therapy†.

Photodynamic therapy of cancer (PDT) is a therapeutic technique, minimally invasive, which is currently used to treat cancerous lesions and tumors that have been in the spotlight for its potential over the recent decades. Nonetheless, PDT still needs further development to become a first-option treatment for patients. This review compiles recent progress in several aspects of the current research in the constantly growing area of PDT to overcome the main challenges as an attempt to serve as a guide and reference for newcomers into this research area. This review has been prepared to highlight the use of chemical modifications on photosensitizers to improve their solubility, photostability, selectivity and phototoxicity. Additionally, the use of liposomes and cavitands as drug delivery systems to aid in the biodistribution and bioaccumulation of photosensitizers is presented. Also, the combination of PDT with chemotherapy or immunotherapy as an option to boost and improve treatment outcomes is discussed. Finally, the inhibition of antioxidant enzymes as a strategy for a synergistic effect to ameliorate the performance of the photosensitizers in PDT is presented as an alternative for future researchers.

Extraordinary Control of Photosensitized Singlet Oxygen Generation by Acyclic Cucurbituril-like Containers.

Supramolecular control of singlet oxygen generation is incredibly valuable for several fields with broad applications and thus still challenging. However, macrocyclic inclusion complexes inherently restrict the interaction of photosensitizers with surrounding oxygen in the media. To circumvent this issue, we turned our attention in this work to acyclic cucurbituril-like containers and uncover their properties as supramolecular hosts for photosensitizers with extraordinary control of their photophysics, including singlet oxygen generation. Thermodynamic and photophysical studies were carried out showing that these acyclic containers compare very favorably to benchmark macrocycles such as cucurbiturils and cyclodextrins in terms of their binding affinities and supramolecular control of singlet oxygen generation. Acyclic container with terminal naphthalene walls offers a similar cavity to cucurbit[7]uril and the same carbonyl-lined portals for a tight binding of phenothiazinium dye methylene blue and stabilizing its singlet and triplet excited states. Thus, generation of singlet oxygen for this container is higher than for other macrocycles and even higher than the free photosensitizer. While the acyclic container with smaller terminal benzene walls, stacks over the dye through sulfur-π and π-π interactions deactivating the singlet and triplet excited states, thus showing the lowest generation of singlet oxygen out of all of the studied systems. Due to the great water solubility and biocompatibility of these systems, they possess great potential for novel applications in photocatalysis, synthesis, and biomedical fields, among others.