Ocular mycobacterial lesions in cats.

Ocular mycobacterial infections are an under-recognized cause of morbidity in the domestic cat. This study aimed to explore the distribution, histopathological appearance, and severity of feline ocular mycobacterial lesions, and to characterize the immune cell population with immunohistochemistry. Routine histological staining with hematoxylin and eosin, and Masson's trichrome, was performed to identify ocular lesions and assign an inflammation score based on the number of cells present. Acid-fast bacilli were detected with Ziehl-Neelsen, and immunohistochemistry for ionized calcium-binding adaptor protein-1 (Iba1), calprotectin, cluster of differentiation 3 (CD3), and Pax5 was undertaken on formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue samples from 24 cases of ocular mycobacteriosis. Posterior or panuveitis with concurrent retinitis was identified in 20/24 cases (83%), with retinal detachment in 16/20 (80%) of these cases. Choroidal lesions had the highest median inflammation score. Ziehl-Neelsen-positive organisms were detected in 20/24 cases (83%), with the highest prevalence of acid-fast bacilli detected in choroidal lesions (16/20, 80%). Lesions were typically granulomatous to pyogranulomatous, characterized by abundant numbers of Iba1-positive macrophages, followed by calprotectin-positive granulocytes and monocytes, fewer T cells, and rarer B cells. However, where iritis was identified, inflammation was typically lymphoplasmacytic (11/16 cases, 69%). Where diagnostic testing was performed, tuberculosis (ie, infection with Mycobacterium bovis, Mycobacterium microti, or a nonspeciated Mycobacterium tuberculosis-complex pathogen) was diagnosed in 20/22 cats (91%), with Mycobacterium lepraemurium infection identified in the other 2/22 cats (9%). These results suggest the choroid is the primary site of lesion development in most cases of feline ocular mycobacteriosis, and inflammatory changes are associated with the presence of mycobacteria localized to ocular tissues.

Bovine tuberculosis in working foxhounds: lessons learned from a complex public health investigation.

In 2017, Public Health England South East Health Protection Team (HPT) were involved in the management of an outbreak of Mycobacterium bovis (the causative agent of bovine tuberculosis) in a pack of working foxhounds. This paper summarises the actions taken by the team in managing the public health aspects of the outbreak, and lessons learned to improve the management of future potential outbreaks. A literature search was conducted to identify relevant publications on M. bovis. Clinical notes from the Public Health England (PHE) health protection database were reviewed and key points extracted. Animal and public health stakeholders involved in the management of the situation provided further evidence through unstructured interviews and personal communications. The PHE South East team initially provided 'inform and advise' letters to human contacts whilst awaiting laboratory confirmation to identify the infectious agent. Once M. bovis had been confirmed in the hounds, an in-depth risk assessment was conducted, and contacts were stratified in to risk pools. Eleven out of 20 exposed persons with the greatest risk of exposure were recommended to attend TB screening and one tested positive, but had no evidence of active TB infection. The number of human contacts working with foxhound packs can be large and varied. HPTs should undertake a comprehensive risk assessment of all potential routes of exposure, involve all other relevant stakeholders from an early stage and undertake regular risk assessments. Current guidance should be revised to account for the unique risks to human health posed by exposure to infected working dogs.

EFFECTS OF FLUID AND COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL FACTORS ON CONSPICUITY OF CANINE AND FELINE NASAL TURBINATES.

Turbinate destruction is an important diagnostic criterion in canine and feline nasal computed tomography (CT). However decreased turbinate visibility may also be caused by technical CT settings and nasal fluid. The purpose of this experimental, crossover study was to determine whether fluid reduces conspicuity of canine and feline nasal turbinates in CT and if so, whether CT settings can maximize conspicuity. Three canine and three feline cadaver heads were used. Nasal slabs were CT-scanned before and after submerging them in a water bath; using sequential, helical, and ultrahigh resolution modes; with images in low, medium, and high frequency image reconstruction kernels; and with application of additional posterior fossa optimization and high contrast enhancing filters. Visible turbinate length was measured by a single observer using manual tracing. Nasal density heterogeneity was measured using the standard deviation (SD) of mean nasal density from a region of interest in each nasal cavity. Linear mixed-effect models using the R package 'nlme', multivariable models and standard post hoc Tukey pair-wise comparisons were performed to investigate the effect of several variables (nasal content, scanning mode, image reconstruction kernel, application of post reconstruction filters) on measured visible total turbinate length and SD of mean nasal density. All canine and feline water-filled nasal slabs showed significantly decreased visibility of nasal turbinates (P < 0.001). High frequency kernels provided the best turbinate visibility and highest SD of aerated nasal slabs, whereas medium frequency kernels were optimal for water-filled nasal slabs. Scanning mode and filter application had no effect on turbinate visibility.

Enteropathogen co-infection in UK cats with diarrhoea.

BACKGROUND: Individual enteropathogen infections in healthy and clinically ill cats are well described, but prevalence and patterns of enteropathogen co-infection have only been reported on a limited basis. We studied enteropathogen co-infection in diarrhoeic UK cats using results of a real time PCR assay for 8 enteropathogenic species; feline coronavirus (Co), feline panleukopenia virus (Pa), Clostridium perfringens (Cl), Salmonella enterica (Sa), Giardia spp. (Gi), Tritrichomonas foetus (Tr), Cryptosporidium spp. (Cr), and Toxoplasma gondii (To). Age, gender, breed and history were recorded. PCR panels from 1088 diarrhoeic cats were available for analysis. RESULTS: Overall enteropathogen prevalence was 56.9% (Co), 22.1% (Pa), 56.6% (Cl), 0.8% (Sa), 20.6% (Gi), 18.8% (Tr), 24.4% (Cr) and 1.0% (To). Prevalence of Co, Gi and Tr was higher in pedigree cats compared to non-pedigree cats (DSH) and prevalence decreased with increasing age for Co, Pa, Gi, Cr and Tr. Co-infection was common: ≥2 enteropathogens were detected in 62.5% of cats, and 13.3% of cats had ≥4 enteropathogens. Mean ( x¯) enteropathogen co-infection 2.01 (±1.3 SD), was significantly higher in pedigree cats ( x¯ =2.51) compared to DSH ( x¯ =1.68) and decreased with age ( x¯ =2.64 <6 months, x¯ =1.68 for >1 yr). More cats were negative for all 8 enteropathogens tested (12.7%) than expected. When exact combinations of co-infection were examined, Tr tended to be found in combinations with Co, Cl, and Gi. CONCLUSIONS: Multiple infections should be considered the most likely result of faecal testing in cats, and case management needs to take this into account. In contrast, the relatively high percentage of cats negative for all 8 enteropathogens tested could indicate an innate resistance to infection. Alternatively it could indicate a lack of exposure to these 8 enteropathogens or the presence of other enteropathogens not assessed by this assay.

Review canine tuberculosis - An emerging concern.

Canine mycobacterial disease was first recognised over 100 years ago but is now an emerging concern. All reported cases of tuberculous disease in dogs have been caused by infection with one of three Mycobacterium tuberculosis-complex (MTBC) organisms (M. tuberculosis, Mycobacterium bovis, and Mycobacterium microti). Molecular PCR and interferon-gamma release assays offer alternative or complementary diagnostic pathways to that of specialist culture, which is limited by availability, sensitivity, and the time it takes to get a result. Optimised triple antimicrobial protocols offer an excellent chance of a successful outcome in dogs where treatment can be considered and is attempted. In this review, the clinical presentation, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of canine tuberculosis are discussed.

Canine tuberculosis: A review of 18 new and 565 previously reported confirmed cases.

Cases of canine tuberculosis, a zoonotic infection of significant public health significance, are typically only sporadically reported in the literature. For this observational study, case details were collated both retrospectively and prospectively for dogs infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis-complex (MTBC) organisms. A total of 18 previously unreported cases as well as 565 historically reported confirmed cases were reviewed. A variety of diagnostic techniques were used to make a confirmed diagnosis of tuberculosis (culture, interferon-gamma release assay [IGRA], and PCR). The reference standard for diagnosis is culture; however, this was negative or not attempted in some dogs. Where fully speciated, all cases were caused by infection with one of three MTBC organisms: M. tuberculosis, Mycobacterium bovis, or Mycobacterium microti. This study includes the first documented canine infections with M. microti in the UK. All cases were assigned to one of four clinical groups based on the presenting signs: 44.1% were primarily pulmonary, 14.5% were primarily abdominal, and the remainder were disseminated or miscellaneous. The development of adjunctive tests remains necessary to support early treatment decisions pending reporting of culture for MTBC organisms, which can take weeks to months. Definitive treatment, where attempted, was successful in most cases. Of the 13 dogs treated by the authors with triple combination antimicrobial therapy, a good clinical outcome was seen in 12 (92%) of them.

How and why pet cats are fed the way they are: a self-reported owner survey.

OBJECTIVES: This study used an owner-directed online questionnaire to collect data regarding their food and water provision for their pet cats. The survey was conducted in 2019. METHODS: The anonymous online 30-question survey was available via vetprofessionals.com. RESULTS: A total of 1172 cat owners fully completed the questionnaire. The respondents each owned a median of two cats (range 1-6). They reported being most strongly motivated to feed a particular ration because of palatability, observed and/or expected health benefits, or that the diet was/is perceived as 'natural'. The majority of owners (n = 946, 80.7%) fed their cats exclusively a commercially purchased complete wet food, dry kibble diet or mixture of both. Compared with a previous (unpublished) survey conducted by the same authors in 2013,1 there were substantial increases in the number of owners feeding therapeutic diets (26.6% vs 0.7%) and the inclusion of raw meat in cats' rations (15.6% vs 3.7%). The proportion of respondents providing at least one feeding station per cat was 83.1%, with significant use of enrichment feeding methods (29.1%). CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: Veterinarians need to be aware of changing trends in cat feeding to provide owners with appropriate support. Veterinary advice was frequently sought by owners and can be used as an opportunity to improve cat health and welfare, particularly in multi-cat households, but was not often influential to client decision making.

Clinicopathological findings, treatment, and outcome in 60 cats with gastrointestinal eosinophilic sclerosing fibroplasia.

BACKGROUND: Gastrointestinal eosinophilic sclerosing fibroplasia (GESF) in cats presents as mass(es) associated with the gastrointestinal tract, mesentery, and abdominal lymph nodes. HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVES: To report the clinicopathological findings, treatment, and outcome of cats with GESF. ANIMALS: Sixty client-owned cats diagnosed with GESF. METHODS: Retrospective review of medical records of cats with histopathologically confirmed GESF. RESULTS: The median age was 5.4 years (interquartile range [IQR], 3.3-8.9.); 30% were Domestic Shorthairs and 12% were Domestic Longhair cats, with the most prevalent pedigree breeds being Ragdolls (25%), Exotic Shorthair (10%) and Persian (8%) cats. The median duration of clinical signs was 90 days (IQR, 17.5-247.0); the most common clinical signs were weight loss (60%), hyporexia/anorexia (55%), chronic vomiting (37%), lethargy (35%) and chronic diarrhea (27%). Masses were located in the small intestine (32%), stomach (27%), ileocolic junction (15%), colon (10%), lymph node (8%) and mesentery (8%) and 15% of cats had >1 mass. Eosinophilia was present in 50% and hypoalbuminemia in 28% of cats. The mass was removed surgically in 37% of cases. Most cats (98%) were treated with corticosteroids. Survival was not statistically different between cats treated with surgical resection and cats treated with medical therapy alone, 88% of the cats were still alive at the time of writing. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: GESF is an important differential diagnosis for abdominal masses in cats, and has a much better prognosis than previously reported.

Understanding the barriers to blood pressure assessment in cats.

OBJECTIVES: A questionnaire was designed to survey veterinarians and veterinary nurses/technicians on blood pressure (BP) assessment in cats, including ocular examination, encompassing current methodology, indications, uptake and barriers. METHODS: An online questionnaire was produced and promoted to more than 2000 veterinary professionals, of whom 545 answered all questions and 85 answered most questions. RESULTS: Of the participants, 572 (90.8%) were based in the UK and almost all (n = 613, 97.3%) had access to a BP monitor. Of those that had a monitor, most (n = 550, 88.4%) participants had access to a Doppler monitor; 367 (59.0%) participants had access to multiparameter monitors; fewer (n = 202, 32.5%) had access to oscillometric BP monitors. Where applicable, Doppler monitors were most commonly chosen for conscious cat measurements (n = 337, 72.2%) due to the greater 'trust' and 'reliability' of these compared with oscillometric machines. Conscious BP measurement typically involved two members of staff (n = 391, 62.9%). Only 156 (29.1%) participants recommended BP assessment at least several times a week in their interactions with cat owners. BP assessment was routinely recommended in cats with ocular target organ damage (n = 365, 87.7%), chronic kidney disease (n = 346, 78.6%), proteinuria (n = 255, 63.0%) and hyperthyroidism (n = 266, 60.9%). Common equipment-related barriers included 'cuff frustration' and difficulties hearing the pulse signal for Doppler users (72.2% and 71.6%, respectively), and oscillometric machines failing to give a reading at least some of the time (52.8%). Situational hypertension concerns affected many (n = 507, 92.0%), as did lack of time to do the procedure (n = 402, 73.0%). Significant owner barriers included difficulties persuading the owner to bring their cat in for BP checks (n = 475, 86.2%) and concerns over costs (n = 445, 80.8%). Most participants had access to a direct ophthalmoscope (n = 527, 96.5%); however, 399 (73.1%) reported that they struggled to interpret ocular findings. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: Significant barriers exist to successful BP assessment in cats. Education and support of clinics should focus on improving confidence with equipment and eye examination.

Development of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the diagnosis of feline tuberculosis.

Cases of feline tuberculosis (TB) can be challenging to diagnose. Currently, this is achieved through a combination of mycobacterial culture, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), or interferon-gamma release assay (IGRA); however, these each have limitations. There is limited data regarding the use of humoral immunodiagnostics for TB in cats. Therefore, we sought to develop an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to further facilitate the diagnosis of feline TB. A comparative PPD (purified protein derivative) antibody ELISA was optimised for use on serum and plasma, and was tested against samples from 14 cats with culture-confirmed TB and 24 uninfected controls. Selection of an appropriate positive cut-off value based on receiver-operator characteristic curve analysis gave test sensitivity of 64.3 % and specificity of 100 %. When tested on further samples from cats with strongly suspected mycobacteriosis, 32.9 % (23/70) were antibody positive. Notably, positive results were recorded in cats that failed to respond to the IGRA, and in one PCR and IGRA negative cat. No positive responses were identified in cats with non-tuberculous mycobacterial infections, or with non-mycobacterial diseases (n = 12). Therefore, antibody-based diagnostics may be useful adjunctive tests for cases of TB missed by the IGRA, helping protect both feline and, in turn, human health.

Age-related cognitive impairments in domestic cats naturally infected with feline immunodeficiency virus.

BACKGROUND: Age-related dementia has been documented in domestic cats; however, its interaction with naturally occurring feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) infection has been investigated minimally. METHODS: Visuospatial working memory (VSWM) and problem-solving (PS) ability were evaluated in FIV-infected (n = 37) and control cats (n = 39) using two cognitive tasks tested serially, which assessed the ability of cats to remember the location of a baited container after a set delay, then evaluated the capability of the cats to manipulate the container to obtain the food within a time limit. Cats were categorized using 7 years of age as a cut-off to determine age-related differences. The relationship between cognitive performance and FIV viral load was investigated using real-time PCR cycle threshold (Ct ) values. RESULTS: Age significantly affected VSWM and PS ability. Younger cats had better VSWM performance and PS ability compared to older cats with the same FIV status. There was no difference between younger FIV-positive and negative cats in either part of the task. While older FIV-positive cats had significantly worse VSWM than older FIV-negative cats, no differences were found in PS ability. Additionally, Ct values predicted VSWM but not PS ability. CONCLUSION: Age-related cognitive impairments and FIV infection appear synergetic, causing greater cognitive deficits in older FIV-infected cats.

Veterinary surgeons', veterinary nurses' and owners' experiences of feline telemedicine consultations during the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic.

BACKGROUND: There has been increasing provision of veterinary telemedicine consultations, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic; however, little evidence currently exists examining these remote consultations. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to explore veterinary and cat owner experiences of telemedicine consultations during the pandemic. METHODS: Two questionnaires, one aimed at veterinary professionals and one at cat owners, were launched in September 2020. Questions explored the type of consultation conducted remotely, the perceived advantages and disadvantages of telemedicine, and the role of telemedicine in the future of veterinary practice. RESULTS: Responses were received from 242 veterinary professionals and 98 owners with experience of telemedicine. Monitoring and advice consultations were felt to be most suited to telemedicine. Reduced stress for owners/cats was seen as an advantage of telemedicine, while lack of clinical examination and risk of misdiagnosis were viewed as disadvantages. Most respondents (85.7% [n = 84/98] of owners; 67.4% [n = 163/242] of veterinary professionals) felt practices should continue to offer telemedicine consultations. CONCLUSION: With increasing pet ownership and practice workload, telemedicine may play a crucial role in the future of veterinary practice. Future work should focus on a strategic approach to feline telemedicine, integrating it alongside face-to-face visits and developing technologies to maximise its advantages.

Happy cats: stress in cats and their carers associated with outpatient visits to the clinic.

OBJECTIVES: The importance of the effects of stress on cats is well recognised, with visits to the veterinary clinic a common cause of stress. The aim of this study was to explore owners' experiences of stress, both for themselves and their cat, during veterinary visits, and to gather data on owners' perception of resources within the clinic to reduce stress in their cats. METHODS: A questionnaire aimed at cat owners with recent experience of an outpatient visit to the veterinary clinic was developed and distributed. Questions covered demographics; their most recent veterinary visit; their general experience of visits over the past 3 years; measures taken by the clinic to reduce stress; and awareness of the Cat Friendly Clinic programme. There were various question types, with owners often asked to rate stress from 1 (least stressful) to 10 (most stressful). RESULTS: A total of 277 respondents gave details about their experience of consultations over the past 3 years. Owners rated the stress of travelling to the clinic, other animals in the waiting room and the consultation itself (all median 6, interquartile range 4-8) as the most stressful elements. Most owners reported gentle methods of removing the cat from their carrier; however, almost a third (n = 81/263; 30.8%) had seen their cat scruffed during a consultation. Cat-only waiting rooms were viewed as the most effective measure to reduce stress in the clinic. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: Veterinary clinics are already taking steps to address stress in cats, and owners have a good awareness of stress in their cats. Future work should focus on trialling specific interventions to determine their effectiveness in reducing stress in feline patients, and measures currently perceived by owners to be highly effective, such as cat-only waiting rooms, should be used where feasible.

Comparison between the Parks Medical Doppler and the Mano Médical Vet BP Doppler for recording indirect systemic blood pressure in conscious dogs.

Background: The acquisition of systemic blood pressure (SBP) provides valuable information regarding cardiovascular function and tissue perfusion in human and veterinary species. Aim: To evaluate the agreement between Parks Medical Doppler (PMD) and Mano Médical Vet BP (MMVBP) Doppler for assessing SBP in conscious dogs. Methods: 40 client-owned dogs were prospectively enrolled; SBP measurements were acquired by a single operator using the PMD and then the MMVBP. The mean of five consecutive measurements for each device was classified according to target organ damage (TOD) risk scores (1: <140 mmHg; 2: 140-160 mmHg; 3: 160-180 mmHg; 4: ≥ 180 mmHg). Results: Total mean SBP for the devices was not statistically different (p = 0.77). However, the Bland-Altman analysis revealed wide limits of agreement (LoA), with MMVBP slightly underestimating SBP compared to PMD (bias = -0.6 mmHg, 95% LoA: -26.3 to 25.09). Both devices correlated well ( r = 0.8269; p < 0.0001) and had identically acceptable intra-observer repeatability (coefficients of variation = 4.09% for MMVBP and 3.86% for PMD). Four dogs (10%) had a TOD score of 3 by one device but scored <3 with the other. Conclusion: A good agreement and correlation was observed between the PMD and the MMVBP, suggesting that both devices can be used interchangeably for assessment of SBP in conscious dogs. The wide LoA observed between both devices was most likely associated with intraindividual variability in SBP over time.

Veterinary services during the COVID-19 pandemic: less stressful for cats and their carers?

OBJECTIVES: The COVID-19 pandemic saw major changes to small animal veterinary practice, many of which may have had an impact on stress in cats presented to the clinic. The aim of this study was to examine the nature of feline outpatient visits before and during the pandemic, and examine signs of stress noted in cats before, during and after these visits. METHODS: A questionnaire was used to gather data on cat owner experiences of visits to the veterinary clinic. Data were gathered on the owner's most recent experience of a consultation, with consultations occurring in February 2020 or earlier coded as a standard consultation, and consultations occurring in March 2020 or later coded as COVID-19 consultations. RESULTS: A total of 371 responses were received, with 210 coded as standard consultations and 161 coded as COVID-19 consultations. Consultation type varied significantly between standard and COVID-19 consultations (P <0.001), with emergency consultations more frequent and preventive healthcare consultations less frequent during the COVID-19 pandemic. The area in which the owner and their cat waited also varied significantly between standard and COVID-19 consultations (P <0.001), with standard consultations more likely to involve time in a waiting room while COVID-19 consultations were often called straight in or waited outside the practice. Most owners notedbehaviours associated with stress in their cats, regardless of consultation type, although trying to hide or escape were noted more frequently for cats seen prior to the COVID-19 pandemic. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: The findings suggest that outpatient visits to the veterinary clinic were stressful for cats both prior to and during the COVID-19 pandemic, but some measures taken during the pandemic, for example less use of waiting rooms, could be used alongside existing cat friendly measures to help to reduce stress in feline patients.

Retrospective Survival Analysis of Cats with Feline Infectious Peritonitis Treated with Polyprenyl Immunostimulant That Survived over 365 Days.

Feline infectious peritonitis (FIP) remains a major diagnostic and treatment challenge in feline medicine. An ineffective immune response is an important component of FIP pathophysiology; hence treatment with an immune stimulant such as Polyprenyl Immunostimulant™ (PI), which enhances cell-mediated immunity by upregulating the innate immune response via Toll-like receptors, is a rational approach. Records of cats with FIP treated with PI orally for over 365 days were retrospectively studied. Of these cats (n = 174), records were obtained for n = 103 cats with appropriate clinical signs and clinical pathology. Of these, n = 29 had FIP confirmed by immunohistochemistry (IHC) or reverse transcription polymerase-chain-reaction (RT-PCR). Most of the cats (25/29; 86%) had non-effusive FIP, and only 4/29 cats (14%) had effusive FIP. The mean survival time (MST) was 2927 days (eight years); with 55% of the cats (16/29) still being alive at the time data collection, and 45% (13/29) having died. A persistently low hematocrit plus low albumin:globulin (A:G) ratio, despite treatment, was a negative prognostic indicator. It took a mean of ~182 days and ~375 days, respectively, for anemia and low A:G ratio to resolve in the cats that presented with these laboratory changes. This study shows that PI is beneficial in the treatment of FIP, and more studies are needed to establish the best protocols of use.

Ocular Tuberculosis: More than 'Of Mice and Men'.

Tuberculosis (TB), caused by infection with members of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis-complex, is one of the oldest known infectious disease entities, resulting in the death of millions of humans each year. It also results in a substantial degree of morbidity and mortality in animal species. Extrapulmonary TB is well recognized in humans, and the eye is one site that can be affected. Studies seeking to understand ocular TB have often relied on animal models; however, these have their limitations and may not truly reflect what happens in humans. We wish to raise awareness among ophthalmologists and vision scientists of naturally occurring cases of ocular TB in animals, namely cattle and domestic cats, and the possibilities of gaining further understanding of this presentation of TB by adopting a collaborative approach. This will hopefully improve outcomes for both human and animal patients.

Cognitive Dysfunction in Cats: Update on Neuropathological and Behavioural Changes Plus Clinical Management.

Cognitive dysfunction syndrome (CDS) is an established condition in cats that shares many similarities with human Alzheimer's disease (AD), where cognitive decline ultimately results in dementia. Cats with CDS display behavioural abnormalities, including excessive Vocalisation, altered Interaction with owners (increased affection/attention), altered Sleep-wake cycles, House-soiling, Disorientation (spatial and/or temporal), alterations in Activity, Anxiety, and/or Learning/memory deficits (i.e., VISHDAAL). These cats develop neuropathologies, such as accumulation of ß-amyloid and hyperphosphorylated tau deposits. Because of its similarities to those in the brains of people with cognitive impairment and AD, the domestic cat could be a natural model for human dementia studies. It is important to diagnose CDS promptly in cats, ruling out other causes for these behavioural changes, to provide effective management. Interventions include environmental enrichment (e.g., easy access to key resources, calming pheromones), dietary supplementations (e.g., Senilife, Aktivait for cats, SAMe), specific diets (e.g., containing antioxidants, medium-chain triglycerides) and, potentially, medication (e.g., selegiline or propentofylline). This article reviews the literature about CDS in cats, its causes, neuropathology, clinical signs, diagnosis and potential management options. By doing so, it furthers our understanding of this condition and allows improved health, welfare and quality of life of affected cats.

Repeated bouts of pulmonary tuberculosis in a hunting cat: reinfection or recrudescence?

CASE SUMMARY: A 7-year-old neutered male Siamese cat was referred for investigation of weight loss and hypercalcaemia (3.3 mmol/l; reference interval 2-3 mmol/l). Haematology, serum biochemistry, thoracic imaging, bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL), Ziehl-Neelsen staining of the BAL fluid and interferon gamma release assay (IGRA) were compatible with pneumonia caused by the less pathogenic member of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex, that is, M microti (the 'vole bacillus'), which is common in cats in the UK. Treatment with azithromycin, rifampicin and marbofloxacin was given for 2 months, followed by 4 months of azithromycin and marbofloxacin. Treatment recommendations for tuberculous pneumonia have since changed. The cat remained asymptomatic for 1 year but went on to develop M microti pneumonia on five other occasions, and was treated for 6-12 months on each occasion. The patient's clinical signs, hypercalcaemia and radiographic/CT pulmonary pathology always resolved completely, and the IGRA became negative, before antimycobacterial treatment was stopped. This suggests cure followed by reinfection owing to avid hunting behaviour. Alternatively, this could represent recrudescence of dormant disease. This case has previously been included in a study that described a series of cases of feline tuberculosis. RELEVANCE AND NOVEL INFORMATION: This case shows that M microti infection in cats can present as recurrent episodes of pneumonia, even after prolonged treatment courses.