Calix[4]pyrrole-Based Molecular Capsule: Dihydrogen Phosphate-Promoted 1:2 Fluoride Anion Complexation.

A molecular capsule (1) consisting of two calix[4]pyrroles connected via ethylene diamide linkers has been prepared as an anion receptor. 1H NMR spectroscopic studies carried out in CD2Cl2 revealed that receptor 1 recognizes a variety of anions with different binding modes and stoichiometries. For instance, receptor 1 binds fluoride and acetate with 1:2 receptor/anion stoichiometry and other test anions with 1:1 stoichiometry in solution when their respective tetrabutylammonium (TBA+) salts were used. In contrast, with tetraethylammnium (TEA+) salts, receptor 1 forms 1:2 complexes with chloride and bromide in addition to fluoride, overcoming expected Columbic repulsions between the anions co-bound in close proximity. Receptor 1 is also able to bind oxoanions, such as oxalate (C2O42-), dihydrogen phosphate (H2PO4-), sulfate (SO42-), and hydrogen pyrophosphate (HP2O73-), in the form of 1:1 complexes as the result of presumed cooperation between the two calix[4]pyrrole subunits. The selectivity of receptor 1 for fluoride versus dihydrogen phosphate varies depending on their relative concentrations. For instance, in the presence of less than 1.0 equiv of an equimolar mixture of fluoride and dihydrogen phosphate, receptor 1 shows high selectivity for dihydrogen phosphate. In contrast, in the presence of ≥2.0 anion equiv, receptor 1 binds fluoride preferentially, forming a 1:2 complex. Moreover, when treated with F-, the preformed 1:1 H2PO4- complex of receptor 1 is converted to the corresponding 1:2 receptor/fluoride complex with the release of the prebound dihydrogen phosphate anion. As inferred from gas-phase computations, this seemingly counterintuitive behavior is rationalized in terms of the precomplexed dihydrogen phosphate serving to reduce the reorganization energy required to bind two fluoride anions. The presence of a water molecule in addition to the bound fluoride anions may also favor the formation of the 1:2 F- complex. The present study provides a new approach for fine-tuning the binding selectivity of polytopic anion receptors.

Molecular Pincers Using a Combination of N-H and C-H Donors for Anion Binding.

A naphthalene imide (1) and a naphthalene (2) bearing two pyrrole units have been synthesized, respectively, as anion receptors. It was revealed by 1H NMR spectral studies carried out in CD3CN that receptors 1 and 2 bind various anions via hydrogen bonds using both C-H and N-H donors. Compared with receptor 2, receptor 1 shows higher affinity for the test anions because of the enhanced acidity of its pyrrole NH and naphthalene CH hydrogens by the electron-withdrawing imide substituent. Molecular mechanics computations demonstrate that the receptors contact the halide anions via only one of the two respective available N-H and C-H donors whereas they use all four donors for binding of the oxyanions such as dihydrogen phosphate and hydrogen pyrophosphate. Receptor 1, a push-pull conjugated system, displays a strong fluorescence centered at 625 nm, while receptor 2 exhibits an emission with a maximum peak at 408 nm. In contrast, upon exposure of receptors 1 and 2 to the anions in question, their fluorescence was noticeably quenched particularly with relatively basic anions including F-, H2PO4-, HP2O73-, and HCO3-.

Pyrrole- and Naphthobipyrrole-Strapped Calix[4]pyrroles as Azide Anion Receptors.

The binding interactions between the azide anion (N3-) and the strapped calix[4]pyrroles 2 and 3 bearing auxiliary hydrogen bonding donors on the bridging moieties, as well as of normal calix[4]pyrrole 1, were investigated via 1H NMR spectroscopic and isothermal titration calorimetry analyses. The resulting data revealed that receptors 2 and 3 have significantly higher affinities for the azide anion in organic media as compared with the unfunctionalized calix[4]pyrrole 1 and other azide receptors reported to date. Single crystal X-ray diffraction analyses and calculations using density functional theory revealed that receptor 2 binds CsN3 in two distinct structural forms. As judged from the metric parameters, in the resulting complexes one limiting azide anion resonance contributor is favored over the other, with the specifics depending on the binding mode. In contrast to what is seen for 2, receptor 3 forms a CsN3 complex in 20% CD3OD in CDCl3, wherein the azide anion is bound only vertically to the NH protons of the calix[4]pyrrole and the cesium cation is complexed within the cone shaped-calix[4]pyrrole bowl. The bound cesium cation is also in close proximity to a naphthobipyrrole subunit present in a different molecule, forming an apparent cation-π complex.

Computer-Aided Molecular Design of Bis-phosphine Oxide Lanthanide Extractants.

Computer-aided molecular design and high-throughput screening of viable host architectures can significantly reduce the efforts in the design of novel ligands for efficient extraction of rare earth elements. This paper presents a computational approach to the deliberate design of bis-phosphine oxide host architectures that are structurally organized for complexation of trivalent lanthanides. Molecule building software, HostDesigner, was interfaced with molecular mechanics software, PCModel, providing a tool for generating and screening millions of potential R2(O)P-link-P(O)R2 ligand geometries. The molecular mechanics ranking of ligand structures is consistent with both the solution-phase free energies of complexation obtained with density functional theory and the performance of known bis-phosphine oxide extractants. For the case where the link is -CH2-, evaluation of the ligand geometry provides the first characterization of a steric origin for the "anomalous aryl strengthening" effect. The design approach has identified a number of novel bis-phosphine oxide ligands that are better organized for lanthanide complexation than previously studied examples.

Substituent Effects in CH Hydrogen Bond Interactions: Linear Free Energy Relationships and Influence of Anions.

Aryl CH hydrogen bonds (HBs) are now commonly recognized as important factors in a number of fields, including molecular biology, stereoselective catalysis, and anion supramolecular chemistry. As the utility of CH HBs has grown, so to has the need to understand the structure-activity relationship for tuning both their strength and selectivity. Although there has been significant computational effort in this area, an experimental study of the substituent effects on CH HBs has not been previously undertaken. Herein we disclose a systematic study of a single CH HB by using traditional urea donors as directing groups in a supramolecular binding cavity. Experimentally determined association constants are examined by a combination of computational (electrostatic potential) and empirical (σm and σp) values for substituent effects. The dominance of electrostatic parameters, as observed in a computational DFT study, is consistent with current CH HB theory; however, a novel anion dependence of the substituent effects is revealed in solution.

Predicting stability constants for uranyl complexes using density functional theory.

The ability to predict the equilibrium constants for the formation of 1:1 uranyl/ligand complexes (log K1 values) provides the essential foundation for the rational design of ligands with enhanced uranyl affinity and selectivity. We use density functional theory (B3LYP) and the integral equation formalism polarizable continuum model (IEF-PCM) to compute aqueous stability constants for UO2(2+) complexes with 18 donor ligands. Theoretical calculations permit reasonably good estimates of relative binding strengths, while the absolute log K1 values are significantly overestimated. Accurate predictions of the absolute log K1 values (root-mean-square deviation from experiment <1.0 for log K1 values ranging from 0 to 16.8) can be obtained by fitting the experimental data for two groups of mono- and divalent negative oxygen donor ligands. The utility of correlations is demonstrated for amidoxime and imide dioxime ligands, providing a useful means of screening for new ligands with strong chelating capability to uranyl.

Conformations of Organophosphine Oxides.

The conformations of a series of organophosphine oxides, OP(CH3)2R, where R = methyl, ethyl, isopropyl, tert-butyl, vinyl, and phenyl, are predicted using the MP2/cc-pVTZ level of theory. Comparison of potential energy surfaces for rotation about P-C bonds with crystal structure data reveals a strong correlation between predicted location and energetics of minima and histograms of dihedral angle distributions observed in the solid state. In addition, the most stable conformers are those that minimize the extent of steric repulsion between adjacent rotor substituents, and the torsional barriers tend to increase with the steric bulk of the rotating alkyl group. MM3 force field parameters were adjusted to fit the MP2 results, providing a fast and accurate model for predicting organophosphine oxides shapes-an essential part of understanding the chemistry of these compounds. The predictive power of the modified MM3 model was tested against MP2/cc-pVTZ conformations for triethylphosphine oxide, OP(CH2CH3)3, and triphenylphosphine oxide, OP(Ph)3.

Bipyrrole-strapped calix[4]pyrroles: strong anion receptors that extract the sulfate anion.

Cage-type calix[4]pyrroles 2 and 3 bearing two additional pyrrole groups on the strap have been synthesized. Compared with the parent calix[4]pyrrole (1), they were found to exhibit remarkably enhanced affinities for anions, including the sulfate anion (TBA(+) salts), in organic media (CD2Cl2). This increase is ascribed to participation of the bipyrrole units in anion binding. Receptors 2 and 3 extract the hydrophilic sulfate anion (as the methyltrialkyl(C(8-10))ammonium (A336(+)) salt) from aqueous media into a chloroform phase with significantly improved efficiency (>10-fold relative to calix[4]pyrrole 1). These two receptors also solubilize into chloroform the otherwise insoluble sulfate salt, (TMA)2SO4 (tetramethylammonium sulfate).

De novo structure-based design of ion-pair triple-stranded helicates.

We present a generalized approach toward the design of ion-pair ML3A helicates assembled by coordination of metal cations (M) and anions (A) by ditopic chelating ligands (L). This computational approach, based on de novo structure-based design principles implemented in the HostDesigner software, led to identification of synthetically accessible ditopic ligands that are structurally encoded to form charge-neutral ion-pair helicates with FeSO4 or LnPO4.

Synthesis and lanthanide coordination chemistry of phosphine oxide decorated dibenzothiophene and dibenzothiophene sulfone platforms.

Syntheses for new ligands based upon dibenzothiophene and dibenzothiophene sulfone platforms, decorated with phosphine oxide and methylphosphine oxide donor groups, are described. Coordination chemistry of 4,6-bis(diphenylphosphinoylmethyl)dibenzothiophene (8), 4,6-bis(diphenylphosphinoylmethyl)dibenzothiophene-5,5-dioxide (9) and 4,6-bis(diphenylphosphinoyl)dibenzothiophene-5,5-dioxide (10) with lanthanide nitrates, Ln(NO3)3·(H2O)n is outlined, and crystal structure determinations reveal a range of chelation interactions on Ln(III) ions. The nitric acid dependence of the solvent extraction performance of 9 and 10 in 1,2-dichloroethane for Eu(III) and Am(III) is described and compared against the extraction behavior of related dibenzofuran ligands (2, 3; R = Ph) and n-octyl(phenyl)-N,N-diisobutylcarbamoylmethyl phosphine oxide (4) measured under identical conditions.

Stepwise encapsulation of sulfate ions by ferrocenyl-functionalized tripodal hexaurea receptors.

Three ferrocenyl-functionalized tripodal hexaurea anion receptors with ortho- (L(2)), meta- (L(3)), and para-phenylene (L(4)) bridges, which showed strong binding affinities toward sulfate ions, have been designed and synthesized. In particular, meta-phenylene-bridged ligand L(3), owing to its trigonal bipyramidal structure, can encapsulate two SO4(2-) ions in its "inner" and "outer" tripodal clefts, respectively, as supported by their clearly distinct NMR resonances and by molecular modeling. The sulfate complex of ortho-ligand L(2), (TBA)2[SO4⊂L(2)]·2H2O (1), displays a caged tetrahedral structure with an encapsulated sulfate ion that is hydrogen bonded by the six urea groups of ligand L(2). CV studies showed two types of electrochemical response of the ferrocene/ferrocenium redox couple upon anion binding, that is, a shift of the wave and the appearance of a new peak. Quantitative binding data were obtained from the NMR and CV titrations.

Synthesis of a hydrophilic naphthalimidedioxime.

Imidedioximes are formed in hydroxylamine-treated polyacrylonitrile adsorbents used in the extraction of uranium from seawater. Although known to be a good uranophile, the glutarimidedioxime model compound 1 is rapidly hydrolyzed under acidic conditions used to elute metals from the adsorbent. This work reports the synthesis of a hydrophilic naphthalimidedioxime derivative 14, which is stable under acidic elution conditions. The synthesis starts from simple acenaphthenequinone 7 and converts it to a functional group dense imidedioxime 14 in 7 steps.

De novo structure-based design of bis-amidoxime uranophiles.

This paper presents a computational approach to the deliberate design of host architectures that recognize and bind specific guests. De novo molecule building software, HostDesigner, is interfaced with molecular mechanics software, PCModel, providing a tool for generating and screening millions of potential structures. The efficacy of this computer-aided design methodology is illustrated with a search for bis-amidoxime chelates that are structurally organized for complexation with the uranyl cation.

Design criteria for polyazine extractants to separate An(III) from Ln(III.).

Although polyazine extractants have been extensively studied as agents for partitioning trivalent actinides from lanthanides, an explanation for why certain azine compositions succeed and others fail is lacking. To address this issue, density functional theory calculations were used to evaluate fundamental properties (intrinsic binding affinity for a representative trivalent f-block metal, basicity, and hardness) for prototype azine donors pyridine, pyridazine, pyrimidine, pyrazine, 1,2,3-triazine, 1,2,4-triazine, and 1,3,5-triazine, as well as perform conformational analyses of bisazine chelates formed by directly connecting two donors together. The results provide criteria that both rationalize the behavior of known extractants, TERPY, TPTZ, hemi-BTP, BTP, BTBP, and BTPhen, and predict a new class of extractants based on pyridazine donor groups.

A case for molecular recognition in nuclear separations: sulfate separation from nuclear wastes.

In this paper, we present the case for molecular-recognition approaches for sulfate removal from radioactive wastes via the use of anion-sequestering systems selective for sulfate, using either liquid-liquid extraction or crystallization. Potential benefits of removing sulfate from the waste include improved vitrification of the waste, reduced waste-form volume, and higher waste-form performance, all of which lead to potential cleanup schedule acceleration and cost savings. The need for sulfate removal from radioactive waste, especially legacy tank wastes stored at the Hanford site, is reviewed in detail and primarily relates to the low solubility of sulfate in borosilicate glass. Traditional methods applicable to the separation of sulfate from radioactive wastes are also reviewed, with the finding that currently no technology has been identified and successfully demonstrated to meet this need. Fundamental research in the authors' laboratories targeting sulfate as an important representative of the class of oxoanions is based on the hypothesis that designed receptors may provide the needed ability to recognize sulfate under highly competitive conditions, in particular where the nitrate anion concentration is high. Receptors that have been shown to have promising affinity for sulfate, either in extraction or in crystallization experiments, include hexaurea tripods, tetraamide macrocycles, cyclo[8]pyrroles, calixpyrroles, and self-assembled urea-lined cages. Good sulfate selectivity observed in the laboratory provides experimental support for the proposed molecular-recognition approach.

Synthesis, lanthanide coordination chemistry, and liquid-liquid extraction performance of CMPO-decorated pyridine and pyridine N-oxide platforms.

Syntheses for a set of new ligands containing one or two carbamoylmethylphosphine oxide (CMPO) fragments appended to pyridine and pyridine N-oxide platforms are described. Molecular mechanics analyses for gas phase lanthanide-ligand interactions for the pyridine N-oxides indicate that the trifunctional NOPOCO molecules, 2-{[Ph2P(O)][C(O)NEt2]C(H)}C5H4NO (7) and 2-{[Ph2P(O)][C(O)NEt2]CHCH2}C5H4NO (8), and pentafunctional NOPOP'O'COC'O' molecules, 2,6-{[Ph2P(O)][C(O)NEt2]C(H)}2C5H3NO (9) and 2,6-{[Ph2P(O)][C(O)NEt2]CHCH2}2C5H3NO (10), should be able to adopt, with minimal strain, tridentate and pentadentate chelate structures, respectively. As a test of these predictions, selected lanthanide coordination chemistry of the N-oxide derivatives was explored. Crystal structure analyses reveal the formation of a tridentate NOPOCO chelate structure for a 1:1 Pr(III) complex containing 7 while 8 adopts a mixed bidentate/bridging monodentate POCO/NO binding mode with Pr(III). Tridentate and tetradentate chelate structures are obtained for several 1:1 complexes of 9 while a pentadentate chelate structure is observed with 10. Emission spectroscopy for one complex, [Eu(9)(NO3)3], in methanol, shows that the Eu(III) ion resides in a low-symmetry site. Lifetime measurements for methanol and deuterated methanol solutions indicate the presence of four methanol molecules in the inner coordination sphere of the metal ion, in addition to the ligand, with the nitrate anions most likely dissociated. The solvent extraction performance of 7-10 in 1,2-dichloroethane for Eu(III) and Am(III) in nitric acid solutions was analyzed and compared with the performance of 2,6-bis(di-n-octylphosphinoylmethyl)pyridine N-oxide (TONOPOP'O') and n-octyl(phenyl)-N,N-diisobutylcarbamoylmethylphosphine oxide (OPhDiBCMPO) measured under identical conditions.

Cyclo[2]carbazole[2]pyrrole: a preorganized calix[4]pyrrole analogue.

A cyclo[2]carbazole[2]pyrrole (2) consisting of two carbazoles and two pyrroles has been synthesized by directly linking the carbazole 1- and 8-carbon atoms to the pyrrole α-carbon atoms. Macrocycle 2 is an extensively conjugated 16-membered macrocyclic ring that is fixed in a pseudo-1,3-alternate conformation. This provides a preorganized anion binding site consisting of two pyrrole subunits. 1H NMR spectroscopic analysis revealed that only the two diagonally opposed pyrrole NH protons, as opposed to the carbazole protons, take part in anion binding. Nevertheless, cyclo[2]carbazole[2]pyrrole 2 binds representative anions with higher affinity in CD2Cl2 than calix[4]pyrrole (1), a well-studied non-conjugated tetrapyrrole macrocycle that binds anions via four pyrrolic NH hydrogen bond interactions. On the basis of computational studies, the higher chloride anion affinity of receptor 2 relative to 1 is rationalized in terms of a larger binding energy and a lower host strain energy associated with anion complexation. In the presence of excess fluoride or bicarbonate anions, compound 2 loses two pyrrolic NH protons to produce a stable dianionic macrocycle [2-2H]2- displaying a quenched fluorescence.

Urea-functionalized M4L6 cage receptors: anion-templated self-assembly and selective guest exchange in aqueous solutions.

We present an extensive study of a novel class of de novo designed tetrahedral M(4)L(6) (M = Ni, Zn) cage receptors, wherein internal decoration of the cage cavities with urea anion-binding groups, via functionalization of the organic components L, led to selective encapsulation of tetrahedral oxoanions EO(4)(n-) (E = S, Se, Cr, Mo, W, n = 2; E = P, n = 3) from aqueous solutions, based on shape, size, and charge recognition. External functionalization with tBu groups led to enhanced solubility of the cages in aqueous methanol solutions, thereby allowing for their thorough characterization by multinuclear ((1)H, (13)C, (77)Se) and diffusion NMR spectroscopies. Additional experimental characterization by electrospray ionization mass spectrometry, UV-vis spectroscopy, and single-crystal X-ray diffraction, as well as theoretical calculations, led to a detailed understanding of the cage structures, self-assembly, and anion encapsulation. We found that the cage self-assembly is templated by EO(4)(n-) oxoanions (n ≥ 2), and upon removal of the templating anion the tetrahedral M(4)L(6) cages rearrange into different coordination assemblies. The exchange selectivity among EO(4)(n-) oxoanions has been investigated with (77)Se NMR spectroscopy using (77)SeO(4)(2-) as an anionic probe, which found the following selectivity trend: PO(4)(3-) ≫ CrO(4)(2-) > SO(4)(2-) > SeO(4)(2-) > MoO(4)(2-) > WO(4)(2-). In addition to the complementarity and flexibility of the cage receptor, a combination of factors have been found to contribute to the observed anion selectivity, including the anions' charge, size, hydration, basicity, and hydrogen-bond acceptor abilities.

Controlling cesium cation recognition via cation metathesis within an ion pair receptor.

Ion pair receptor 3 bearing an anion binding site and multiple cation binding sites has been synthesized and shown to function in a novel binding-release cycle that does not necessarily require displacement to effect release. The receptor forms stable complexes with the test cesium salts, CsCl and CsNO(3), in solution (10% methanol-d(4) in chloroform-d) as inferred from (1)H NMR spectroscopic analyses. The addition of KClO(4) to these cesium salt complexes leads to a novel type of cation metathesis in which the "exchanged" cations occupy different binding sites. Specifically, K(+) becomes bound at the expense of the Cs(+) cation initially present in the complex. Under liquid-liquid conditions, receptor 3 is able to extract CsNO(3) and CsCl from an aqueous D(2)O layer into nitrobenzene-d(5) as inferred from (1)H NMR spectroscopic analyses and radiotracer measurements. The Cs(+) cation of the CsNO(3) extracted into the nitrobenzene phase by receptor 3 may be released into the aqueous phase by contacting the loaded nitrobenzene phase with an aqueous KClO(4) solution. Additional exposure of the nitrobenzene layer to chloroform and water gives 3 in its uncomplexed, ion-free form. This allows receptor 3 to be recovered for subsequent use. Support for the underlying complexation chemistry came from single-crystal X-ray diffraction analyses and gas-phase energy-minimization studies.

KF and CsF recognition and extraction by a calix[4]crown-5 strapped calix[4]pyrrole multitopic receptor.

On the basis of (1)H NMR spectroscopic analyses and single crystal X-ray crystal structural data, the ion-pair receptor 1, bearing a calix[4]pyrrole for anion binding and calix[4]arene crown-5 for cation recognition, was found to act as a receptor for both CsF and KF ion-pairs. Both substrates are bound strongly but via different binding modes and with different complexation dynamics. Specifically, exposure to KF in 10% CD(3)OD in CDCl(3) leads first to complexation of the K(+) cation by the calix[4]arene crown-5 moiety. As the relative concentration of KF increases, then the calix[4]pyrrole subunit binds the F(-) anion. Once bound, the K(+) cation and the F(-) anion give rise to a stable 1:1 ion-pair complex that generally precipitates from solution. In contrast to what is seen with KF, the CsF ion-pair interacts with receptor 1 in two different modes in 10% CD(3)OD in CDCl(3). In the first of these, the Cs(+) cation interacts with the calix[4]arene crown-5 ring weakly. In the second interaction mode, which is thermodynamically more stable, the Cs(+) cation and the counteranion, F(-), are simultaneously bound to the receptor framework. Further proof that system 1 acts as a viable ion-pair receptor came from the finding that receptor 1 could extract KF from an aqueous phase into nitrobenzene, overcoming the high hydration energies of the K(+) and F(-) ions. It was more effective in this regard than a 1:1 mixture of the constituent cation and anion receptors (4 and 5).