Scribble is required for normal epithelial cell-cell contacts and lumen morphogenesis in the mammalian lung.

During lung development, proper epithelial cell arrangements are critical for the formation of an arborized network of tubes. Each tube requires a lumen, the diameter of which must be tightly regulated to enable optimal lung function. Lung branching and lumen morphogenesis require close epithelial cell-cell contacts that are maintained as a result of adherens junctions, tight junctions and by intact apical-basal (A/B) polarity. However, the molecular mechanisms that maintain epithelial cohesion and lumen diameter in the mammalian lung are unknown. Here we show that Scribble, a protein implicated in planar cell polarity (PCP) signalling, is necessary for normal lung morphogenesis. Lungs of the Scrib mouse mutant Circletail (Crc) are abnormally shaped with fewer airways, and these airways often lack a visible, 'open' lumen. Mechanistically we show that Scrib genetically interacts with the core PCP gene Vangl2 in the developing lung and that the distribution of PCP pathway proteins and Rho mediated cytoskeletal modification is perturbed in Scrib(Crc/Crc) lungs. However A/B polarity, which is disrupted in Drosophila Scrib mutants, is largely unaffected. Notably, we find that Scrib mediates functions not attributed to other PCP proteins in the lung. Specifically, Scrib localises to both adherens and tight junctions of lung epithelia and knockdown of Scrib in lung explants and organotypic cultures leads to reduced cohesion of lung epithelial cells. Live imaging of Scrib knockdown lungs shows that Scrib does not affect bud bifurcation, as previously shown for the PCP protein Celsr1, but is required to maintain epithelial cohesion. To understand the mechanism leading to reduced cell-cell association, we show that Scrib associates with ß-catenin in embryonic lung and the sub-cellular distribution of adherens and tight junction proteins is perturbed in mutant lung epithelia. Our data reveal that Scrib is required for normal lung epithelial organisation and lumen morphogenesis by maintaining cell-cell contacts. Thus we reveal novel and important roles for Scrib in lung development operating via the PCP pathway, and in regulating junctional complexes and cell cohesion.

Functional modelling of planar cell polarity: an approach for identifying molecular function.

BACKGROUND: Cells in some tissues acquire a polarisation in the plane of the tissue in addition to apical-basal polarity. This polarisation is commonly known as planar cell polarity and has been found to be important in developmental processes, as planar polarity is required to define the in-plane tissue coordinate system at the cellular level. RESULTS: We have built an in-silico functional model of cellular polarisation that includes cellular asymmetry, cell-cell signalling and a response to a global cue. The model has been validated and parameterised against domineering non-autonomous wing hair phenotypes in Drosophila. CONCLUSIONS: We have carried out a systematic comparison of in-silico polarity phenotypes with patterns observed in vivo under different genetic manipulations in the wing. This has allowed us to classify the specific functional roles of proteins involved in generating cell polarity, providing new hypotheses about their specific functions, in particular for Pk and Dsh. The predictions from the model allow direct assignment of functional roles of genes from genetic mosaic analysis of Drosophila wings.

Lipid raft association restricts CD44-ezrin interaction and promotion of breast cancer cell migration.

Cancer cell migration is an early event in metastasis, the main cause of breast cancer-related deaths. Cholesterol-enriched membrane domains called lipid rafts influence the function of many molecules, including the raft-associated protein CD44. We describe a novel mechanism whereby rafts regulate interactions between CD44 and its binding partner ezrin in migrating breast cancer cells. Specifically, in nonmigrating cells, CD44 and ezrin localized to different membranous compartments: CD44 predominantly in rafts, and ezrin in nonraft compartments. After the induction of migration (either nonspecific or CD44-driven), CD44 affiliation with lipid rafts was decreased. This was accompanied by increased coprecipitation of CD44 and active (threonine-phosphorylated) ezrin-radixin-moesin (ERM) proteins in nonraft compartments and increased colocalization of CD44 with the nonraft protein, transferrin receptor. Pharmacological raft disruption using methyl-ß-cyclodextrin also increased CD44-ezrin coprecipitation and colocalization, further suggesting that CD44 interacts with ezrin outside rafts during migration. Conversely, promoting CD44 retention inside lipid rafts by pharmacological inhibition of depalmitoylation virtually abolished CD44-ezrin interactions. However, transient single or double knockdown of flotillin-1 or caveolin-1 was not sufficient to increase cell migration over a short time course, suggesting complex crosstalk mechanisms. We propose a new model for CD44-dependent breast cancer cell migration, where CD44 must relocalize outside lipid rafts to drive cell migration. This could have implications for rafts as pharmacological targets to down-regulate cancer cell migration.

Protein coalitions in a core mammalian biochemical network linked by rapidly evolving proteins.

BACKGROUND: Cellular ATP levels are generated by glucose-stimulated mitochondrial metabolism and determine metabolic responses, such as glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) from the ß-cells of pancreatic islets. We describe an analysis of the evolutionary processes affecting the core enzymes involved in glucose-stimulated insulin secretion in mammals. The proteins involved in this system belong to ancient enzymatic pathways: glycolysis, the TCA cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. RESULTS: We identify two sets of proteins, or protein coalitions, in this group of 77 enzymes with distinct evolutionary patterns. Members of the glycolysis, TCA cycle, metabolite transport, pyruvate and NADH shuttles have low rates of protein sequence evolution, as inferred from a human-mouse comparison, and relatively high rates of evolutionary gene duplication. Respiratory chain and glutathione pathway proteins evolve faster, exhibiting lower rates of gene duplication. A small number of proteins in the system evolve significantly faster than co-pathway members and may serve as rapidly evolving adapters, linking groups of co-evolving genes. CONCLUSIONS: Our results provide insights into the evolution of the involved proteins. We find evidence for two coalitions of proteins and the role of co-adaptation in protein evolution is identified and could be used in future research within a functional context.

Quantifying Microsatellite Mutation Rates from Intestinal Stem Cell Dynamics in Msh2-Deficient Murine Epithelium.

Microsatellite sequences have an enhanced susceptibility to mutation, and can act as sentinels indicating elevated mutation rates and increased risk of cancer. The probability of mutant fixation within the intestinal epithelium is dictated by a combination of stem cell dynamics and mutation rate. Here, we exploit this relationship to infer microsatellite mutation rates. First a sensitive, multiplexed, and quantitative method for detecting somatic changes in microsatellite length was developed that allowed the parallel detection of mutant [CA]n sequences from hundreds of low-input tissue samples at up to 14 loci. The method was applied to colonic crypts in Mus musculus, and enabled detection of mutant subclones down to 20% of the cellularity of the crypt (∼50 of 250 cells). By quantifying age-related increases in clone frequencies for multiple loci, microsatellite mutation rates in wild-type and Msh2-deficient epithelium were established. An average 388-fold increase in mutation per mitosis rate was observed in Msh2-deficient epithelium (2.4 × 10-2) compared to wild-type epithelium (6.2 × 10-5).

Proliferative heterogeneity of murine epithelial cells in the adult mammary gland.

Breast cancer is the most common cancer in females. The number of years menstruating and length of an individual menstrual cycle have been implicated in increased breast cancer risk. At present, the proliferative changes within an individual reproductive cycle or variations in the estrous cycle in the normal mammary gland are poorly understood. Here we use Fucci2 reporter mice to demonstrate actively proliferating mammary epithelial cells have shorter G1 lengths, whereas more differentiated/non-proliferating cells have extended G1 lengths. We find that cells enter into the cell cycle mainly during diestrus, yet the expansion is erratic and does not take place every reproductive cycle. Single cell expression analyses feature expected proliferation markers (Birc5, Top2a), while HR+ luminal cells exhibit fluctuations of key differentiation genes (ER, Gata3) during the cell cycle. We highlight the proliferative heterogeneity occurring within the normal mammary gland during a single-estrous cycle, indicating that the mammary gland undergoes continual dynamic proliferative changes.

Itraconazole targets cell cycle heterogeneity in colorectal cancer.

Cellular dormancy and heterogeneity in cell cycle length provide important explanations for treatment failure after adjuvant therapy with S-phase cytotoxics in colorectal cancer (CRC), yet the molecular control of the dormant versus cycling state remains unknown. We sought to understand the molecular features of dormant CRC cells to facilitate rationale identification of compounds to target both dormant and cycling tumor cells. Unexpectedly, we demonstrate that dormant CRC cells are differentiated, yet retain clonogenic capacity. Mouse organoid drug screening identifies that itraconazole generates spheroid collapse and loss of dormancy. Human CRC cell dormancy and tumor growth can also be perturbed by itraconazole, which is found to inhibit Wnt signaling through noncanonical hedgehog signaling. Preclinical validation shows itraconazole to be effective in multiple assays through Wnt inhibition, causing both cycling and dormant cells to switch to global senescence. These data provide preclinical evidence to support an early phase trial of itraconazole in CRC.

Deoxyribonucleic acid methylation profiling of single human blastocysts by methylated CpG-island amplification coupled with CpG-island microarray.

OBJECTIVE: To study whether methylated CpG-island (CGI) amplification coupled with microarray (MCAM) can be used to generate DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) methylation profiles from single human blastocysts. DESIGN: A pilot microarray study with methylated CpG-island amplification applied to human blastocyst genomic DNA and hybridized on CpG-island microarrays. SETTING: University research laboratory. PATIENT(S): Five cryopreserved sibling 2-pronuclear zygotes that were surplus to requirements for clinical treatment by in vitro fertilization were donated with informed consent from a patient attending Bourn Hall Clinic, Cambridge, United Kingdom. INTERVENTION(S): None. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): Successful generation of genome-wide DNA methylation profiles at CpG islands from individual human blastocysts, with common genomic regions of DNA methylation identified between embryos. RESULT(S): Between 472 and 734 CpG islands were methylated in each blastocyst, with 121 CpG islands being commonly methylated in all 5 blastocysts. A further 159 CGIs were commonly methylated in 4 of the 5 tested blastocysts. Methylation was observed at a number of CGIs within imprinted-gene, differentially methylated regions (DMRs), including placental and preimplantation-specific DMRs. CONCLUSION(S): The MCAM method is capable of providing comprehensive DNA methylation data in individual human blastocysts.

Modelling mutational landscapes of human cancers in vitro.

Experimental models that recapitulate mutational landscapes of human cancers are needed to decipher the rapidly expanding data on human somatic mutations. We demonstrate that mutation patterns in immortalised cell lines derived from primary murine embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) exposed in vitro to carcinogens recapitulate key features of mutational signatures observed in human cancers. In experiments with several cancer-causing agents we obtained high genome-wide concordance between human tumour mutation data and in vitro data with respect to predominant substitution types, strand bias and sequence context. Moreover, we found signature mutations in well-studied human cancer driver genes. To explore endogenous mutagenesis, we used MEFs ectopically expressing activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID) and observed an excess of AID signature mutations in immortalised cell lines compared to their non-transgenic counterparts. MEF immortalisation is thus a simple and powerful strategy for modelling cancer mutation landscapes that facilitates the interpretation of human tumour genome-wide sequencing data.

Circulating microRNA profiles reflect the presence of breast tumours but not the profiles of microRNAs within the tumours.

BACKGROUND: Extra-cellular microRNAs have been identified within blood and their profiles reflect various pathologies; therefore they have potential as disease biomarkers. Our aim was to investigate how circulating microRNA profiles change during cancer treatment. Our hypothesis was that tumour-related profiles are lost after tumour resection and therefore that comparison of profiles before and after surgery would allow identification of biomarker microRNAs. We aimed to examine whether these microRNAs were directly derived from tumours, and whether longitudinal expression monitoring could provide recurrence diagnoses. METHODS: Plasma was obtained from ten breast cancer patients before and at two time-points after resection. Tumour tissue was also obtained. Quantitative PCR were used to determine levels of 367 miRNAs. Relative expressions were determined after normalisation to miR-16, as is typical in the field, or to the mean microRNA level. RESULTS: 210 microRNAs were detected in at least one plasma sample. Using miR-16 normalisation, we found few consistent changes in circulating microRNAs after resection, and statistical analyses indicated that this normalisation was not justifiable. However, using data normalised to mean microRNA expression we found a significant bias for levels of individual circulating microRNAs to be reduced after resection. Potential biomarker microRNAs were identified, including let-7b, let-7g and miR-18b, with higher levels associated with tumours. These microRNAs were over-represented within the more highly expressed microRNAs in matched tumours, suggesting that circulating populations are tumour-derived in part. Longitudinal monitoring did not allow early recurrence detection. CONCLUSIONS: We concluded that specific circulating microRNAs may act as breast cancer biomarkers but methodological issues are critical.