HIV co-infection is associated with reduced Mycobacterium tuberculosis transmissibility in sub-Saharan Africa.

Persons living with HIV are known to be at increased risk of developing tuberculosis (TB) disease upon infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). However, it has remained unclear how HIV co-infection affects subsequent Mtb transmission from these patients. Here, we customized a Bayesian phylodynamic framework to estimate the effects of HIV co-infection on the Mtb transmission dynamics from sequence data. We applied our model to four Mtb genomic datasets collected in sub-Saharan African countries with a generalized HIV epidemic. Our results confirm that HIV co-infection is a strong risk factor for developing active TB. Additionally, we demonstrate that HIV co-infection is associated with a reduced effective reproductive number for TB. Stratifying the population by CD4+ T-cell count yielded similar results, suggesting that, in this context, CD4+ T-cell count is not a better predictor of Mtb transmissibility than HIV infection status alone. Together, our genome-based analyses complement observational household contact studies, and more firmly establish the negative association between HIV co-infection and Mtb transmissibility.

Back-to-Africa introductions of Mycobacterium tuberculosis as the main cause of tuberculosis in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.

In settings with high tuberculosis (TB) endemicity, distinct genotypes of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) often differ in prevalence. However, the factors leading to these differences remain poorly understood. Here we studied the MTBC population in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania over a six-year period, using 1,082 unique patient-derived MTBC whole-genome sequences (WGS) and associated clinical data. We show that the TB epidemic in Dar es Salaam is dominated by multiple MTBC genotypes introduced to Tanzania from different parts of the world during the last 300 years. The most common MTBC genotypes deriving from these introductions exhibited differences in transmission rates and in the duration of the infectious period, but little differences in overall fitness, as measured by the effective reproductive number. Moreover, measures of disease severity and bacterial load indicated no differences in virulence between these genotypes during active TB. Instead, the combination of an early introduction and a high transmission rate accounted for the high prevalence of L3.1.1, the most dominant MTBC genotype in this setting. Yet, a longer co-existence with the host population did not always result in a higher transmission rate, suggesting that distinct life-history traits have evolved in the different MTBC genotypes. Taken together, our results point to bacterial factors as important determinants of the TB epidemic in Dar es Salaam.

A prospective evaluation of the diagnostic accuracy of the point-of-care VISITECT CD4 Advanced Disease test in seven countries.

BACKGROUND: CD4 measurement is pivotal in the management of advanced HIV disease. VISITECT® CD4 Advanced Disease (AccuBio Limited, Alva, UK; VISITECT) is an instrument-free, point-of-care, semi-quantitative test allowing visual identification of a CD4 ≤200 cells/µl, or >200 cells/µl from finger-prick or venous blood. METHODS: As part of a diagnostic accuracy study of FUJIFILM SILVAMP TB LAM (clinicaltrials.gov: NCT04089423), people living with HIV of ≥18 years old were prospectively recruited in seven countries from outpatient departments if a tuberculosis symptom was present, and from inpatient departments. Participants provided venous blood for CD4 measurement using flow cytometry (reference standard) and finger-prick blood for VISITECT (index text), performed at point-of-care. Sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative predictive values of VISITECT to determine a CD4 ≤200 cells/µl were evaluated. RESULTS: Among 1604 participants, the median flow cytometry CD4 was 367 (IQR 128-626) cells/µl and 521 (32.5%) had a CD4 ≤200 cells/µl. VISITECT sensitivity was 92.7% (483/521, 95% CI 90.1-94.7%) and specificity was 61.4% (665/1083, 95% CI 58.4-64.3%). For participants with a CD4 between 0-100, 101-200, 201-300, 301-500, and >500 cells/µl, VISITECT misclassified 4.5% (95% CI 2.5-7.2%), 12.5 (95% CI 8.0-18.2%), 74.1% (95% CI 67.0-80.5%), 48.0% (95% CI 42.5-53.6%), and 22.6% (95% CI 19.3-26.3%), respectively. CONCLUSIONS: VISITECT's sensitivity, but not specificity, met the World Health Organization's minimal sensitivity and specificity threshold of 80% for point-of-care CD4 tests. VISITECT's quality needs to be assessed and its accuracy optimized. VISITECT´s utility as CD4 triage test should be investigated.

Ultrasononography in Managing Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis: A Randomized, Controlled, Parallel, Superiority, Open-Label Trial.

BACKGROUND: Patients with suspected extrapulmonary tuberculosis are often treated empirically. We hypothesized that extended focused assessment with sonography for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and tuberculosis (eFASH), in combination with other tests, would increase the proportion of correctly managed patients with suspected extrapulmonary tuberculosis. METHODS: This trial in adults with suspected extrapulmonary tuberculosis was performed in a rural and an urban hospital in Tanzania. Participants were randomized 1:1 to intervention or routine care, stratified by site and HIV status. All participants underwent clinical evaluation, chest radiography, and testing with sputum Xpert MTB/RIF and urine Xpert MTB/RIF Ultra assays. The intervention was a management algorithm based on results of eFASH plus microbiology, adenosine deaminase (ADA), and chest radiography. The primary outcome was the proportion of correctly managed patients. The presence of positive microbiological or ADA results defined definite tuberculosis. An independent end-point review committee determined diagnoses of probable or no tuberculosis. We evaluated outcomes using logistic regression models, adjusted for randomization stratification factors. RESULTS: From September 2018 to October 2020, a total of 1036 patients were screened and 701 were randomized (350 to the intervention and 351 to the control group). Of participants in the intervention group, 251 (72%) had a positive eFASH outcome. In 258 (74%) of the intervention and 227 (65%) of the control participants antituberculosis was initiated treatment at baseline. More intervention participants had definite tuberculosis (n = 124 [35%]), compared with controls (n = 85 [24%]). There was no difference between groups for the primary outcome (intervention group, 266 of 286 [93%]; control group, 245 of 266 [92%]; odds ratio, 1.14 [95% confidence interval: .60-2.16]; P = .68). There were no procedure-associated adverse events. CONCLUSIONS: eFASH did not change the proportion of correctly managed patients but increased the proportion of those with definite tuberculosis. CLINICAL TRIALS REGISTRATION: Pan African Registry: PACTR201712002829221.

Iron homeostasis during anemia of inflammation: a prospective study of patients with tuberculosis.

Anemia of inflammation is a hallmark of tuberculosis. Factors controlling iron metabolism during anemia of inflammation and its resolution are uncertain. Whether iron supplements should be given during antituberculosis treatment to support hemoglobin (Hb) recovery is unclear. Before and during treatment of tuberculosis, we assessed iron kinetics, as well as changes in inflammation and iron metabolism indices. In a 26-week prospective study, Tanzanian adults with tuberculosis (N = 18) were studied before treatment and then every 2 weeks during treatment; oral and intravenous iron tracers were administered before treatment and after intensive phase (8/12 weeks) and complete treatment (24 weeks). No iron supplements were given. Before treatment, hepcidin and erythroferrone (ERFE) were greatly elevated, erythrocyte iron utilization was high (∼80%), and iron absorption was negligible (<1%). During treatment, hepcidin and interleukin-6 levels decreased ∼70% after only 2 weeks (P< .001); in contrast, ERFE did not significantly decrease until 8 weeks (P< .05). ERFE and interleukin-6 were the main opposing determinants of hepcidin (P< .05), and greater ERFE was associated with reticulocytosis and Hb repletion (P< .01). Dilution of baseline tracer concentration was 2.6-fold higher during intensive phase treatment (P< .01), indicating enhanced erythropoiesis. After treatment completion, iron absorption increased ∼20-fold (P< .001), and Hb increased ∼25% (P< .001). In tuberculosis-associated anemia of inflammation, our findings suggest that elevated ERFE is unable to suppress hepcidin, and iron absorption is negligible. During treatment, as inflammation resolves, ERFE may remain elevated, contributing to hepcidin suppression and Hb repletion. Iron is well absorbed only after tuberculosis treatment, and supplementation should be reserved for patients remaining anemic after treatment. This trial was registered at www.clinicaltrials.gov as #NCT02176772.

Using population-specific add-on polymorphisms to improve genotype imputation in underrepresented populations.

Genome-wide association studies rely on the statistical inference of untyped variants, called imputation, to increase the coverage of genotyping arrays. However, the results are often suboptimal in populations underrepresented in existing reference panels and array designs, since the selected single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) may fail to capture population-specific haplotype structures, hence the full extent of common genetic variation. Here, we propose to sequence the full genomes of a small subset of an underrepresented study cohort to inform the selection of population-specific add-on tag SNPs and to generate an internal population-specific imputation reference panel, such that the remaining array-genotyped cohort could be more accurately imputed. Using a Tanzania-based cohort as a proof-of-concept, we demonstrate the validity of our approach by showing improvements in imputation accuracy after the addition of our designed add-on tags to the base H3Africa array.

Prevalence of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and associated factors among small-holder fish vendors along coastal areas in Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: In Tanzania little is known about how the respiratory system of small-holder fish vendors is affected by occupational exposure to biomass smoke and other associated factors. This study assessed the prevalence of lung obstruction and associated factors among small-holder fish vendors along coastal areas in Tanzania. METHODS: A cross-sectional descriptive study was conducted in Bagamoyo and Kunduchi fish markets along coastal areas of Tanzania. Environmental air pollutant levels and composition were measured using a hand-held device. A standardized questionnaire was used to assess respiratory symptoms while EasyOne spirometer was used to test for lung function among small-holder fish vendors. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) was defined as FEV1/FVC below the lower limit of normal. Data were analyzed using STATA Version 17. Descriptive statistics was performed and logistic regression analysis was used to determine factors that are associated with poor lung function presented as crude and adjusted odds ratio and their 95% confidence intervals. RESULTS: A total of 103 participants were included in the study who were predominantly males 82 (79.6%). The participants' mean age was 35.47 (± 8.77 SD) years. The hourly average concentration levels of PM1, PM2.5, PM10, and CO exposure during fish frying were 653.6 (± 206.3 SD) µg/m3, 748.48 (± 200.6 SD) µg/m3, 798.66 (± 181.71 SD) µg/m3 and 62.6 (± 12.3 SD) ppm respectively which are higher than the WHO recommended limits. The prevalence of COPD was found to be 32.04% (95% CI 0.23-0.42). Most of the participants reported respiratory symptoms like coughing, wheezing, sputum production and breathlessness during performing their daily activities. CONCLUSION: Findings suggest that three out of ten participants had COPD and the major environmental air pollutants (PMs and CO) concentration levels were too high, suggesting that occupational exposure to biomass smoke may be a risk factor. This calls for effective approaches to reduce exposure and prevent known acute and chronic respiratory diseases that are associated with such exposure to air pollutants. Also the study calls for follow up or cohort studies to be conducted in this area.

HIV Infection Functionally Impairs Mycobacterium tuberculosis-Specific CD4 and CD8 T-Cell Responses.

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection is the major risk factor predisposing for Mycobacterium tuberculosis progression from latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) to tuberculosis disease (TB). Since long-term-treated aviremic HIV-infected individuals remained at higher risk of developing TB than HIV-uninfected individuals, we hypothesized that progression from LTBI to pulmonary TB (PTB) might be due not only to CD4 T-cell depletion but also to M. tuberculosis-specific CD4 T-cell functional impairment. To test this hypothesis, M. tuberculosis-specific T-cell frequencies and cytokine profiles were investigated in untreated Tanzanian individuals suffering from LTBI (n = 20) or PTB (n = 67) and compared to those of untreated M. tuberculosis/HIV-coinfected individuals suffering from LTBI (n = 15) or PTB (n = 10). We showed that HIV infection significantly reduced the proportion of Th2 (interleukin 4 [IL-4]/IL-5/IL-13) producing M. tuberculosis-specific CD4 T cells and IL-2-producing M. tuberculosis-specific CD4 and CD8 T cells in individuals with LTBI or PTB (P < 0.05). Interestingly, the loss of IL-2 production was associated with a significant increase of PD-1 expression on M. tuberculosis-specific CD4 and CD8 T cells (P < 0.05), while the loss of Th2 cytokine production was associated with a significant reduction of Gata-3 expression in memory CD4 T cells (P < 0.05). Finally, we showed that the serum levels of IL-1α, IL-6, C-reactive protein (CRP), IL-23, and IP-10 were significantly reduced in M. tuberculosis/HIV-coinfected individuals with PTB compared to those in HIV-negative individuals with PTB (P < 0.05), suggesting that HIV infection significantly suppresses M. tuberculosis-induced systemic proinflammatory cytokine responses. Taken together, this study suggests that in addition to depleting M. tuberculosis-specific CD4 T cells, HIV infection significantly impairs functionally favorable M. tuberculosis-specific CD4 T-cell responses in Tanzanian individuals with LTBI or PTB.IMPORTANCEMycobacterium tuberculosis and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infections are coendemic in several regions of the world, and M. tuberculosis/HIV-coinfected individuals are more susceptible to progression to tuberculosis disease. We therefore hypothesized that HIV infection would potentially impair M. tuberculosis-specific protective immunity in individuals suffering from latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) or active pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB). In this study, we demonstrated that M. tuberculosis/HIV-coinfected individuals have fewer circulating M. tuberculosis-specific CD4 T cells and that those that remained were functionally impaired in both LTBI and PTB settings. In addition, we showed that HIV infection significantly interferes with M. tuberculosis-induced systemic proinflammatory cytokine/chemokine responses. Taken together, these data suggest that HIV infection impairs functionally favorable M. tuberculosis-specific immunity.

Ultrasound in managing extrapulmonary tuberculosis: a randomized controlled two-center study.

BACKGROUND: Patients with clinically suspected tuberculosis are often treated empirically, as diagnosis - especially of extrapulmonary tuberculosis - remains challenging. This leads to an overtreatment of tuberculosis and to underdiagnosis of possible differential diagnoses. METHODS: This open-label, parallel-group, superiority randomized controlled trial is done in a rural and an urban center in Tanzania. HIV-positive and -negative adults (≥18 years) with clinically suspected extrapulmonary tuberculosis are randomized in a 1:1 ratio to an intervention- or control group, stratified by center and HIV status. The intervention consists of a management algorithm including extended focused assessment of sonography for HIV and tuberculosis (eFASH) in combination with chest X-ray and microbiological tests. Treatment with anti-tuberculosis drugs is started, if eFASH is positive, chest X-ray suggests tuberculosis, or a microbiological result is positive for tuberculosis. Patients in the control group are managed according national guidelines. Treatment is started if microbiology is positive or empirically according to the treating physician. The primary outcome is the proportion of correctly managed patients at 6 months (i.e patients who were treated with anti-tuberculosis treatment and had definite or probable tuberculosis, and patients who were not treated with anti-tuberculosis treatment and did not have tuberculosis). Secondary outcomes are the proportion of symptom-free patients at two and 6 months, and time to death. The sample size is 650 patients. DISCUSSION: This study will determine, whether ultrasound in combination with other tests can increase the proportion of correctly managed patients with clinically suspected extrapulmonary tuberculosis, thus reducing overtreatment with anti-tuberculosis drugs. TRIAL REGISTRATION: PACTR, Registration number: PACTR201712002829221, registered December 1st 2017.

Explaining patient delay in healthcare seeking and loss to diagnostic follow-up among patients with presumptive tuberculosis in Tanzania: a mixed-methods study.

BACKGROUND: Delay in healthcare seeking and loss to diagnostic follow-up (LDFU) contribute to substantial increase in tuberculosis (TB) morbidity and mortality. We examined factors, including perceived causes and prior help seeking, contributing to delay and LDFU during referral to a TB clinic among patients with presumptive TB initially seeking help at the pharmacies in Dar es Salaam Tanzania. METHODS: In a TB clinic, a semi-structured interview based on the explanatory model interview catalogue (EMIC) framework for cultural epidemiology was administered to presumptive TB patients enrolled at pharmacies during an intervention study. We assessed delay in seeking care at any medical care provider for a period of ≥3 weeks after the onset of symptoms, LDFU during referral (not reaching the TB clinic), and LDFU for three required TB clinic visits among the presumptive and confirmed TB patients. Logistic regression models were used to assess factors associated with delay and LDFU. RESULTS: Among 136 interviewed patients, 86 (63.2%) were LDFU from pharmacies and TB clinic while 50 (36.8%) were non-LDFU. Out of 136 patients 88 (64.7%) delayed seeking care, of whom 59 (67%) were females. Among the 86 (63.2%) patients in LDFU group, 62 (72.1%) delayed seeking care, while among the 50 (36.8%) non-LDFU, 26 (52.0%) had also delayed seeking care. Prior consultation with a traditional healer (aOR 2.84, 95% CI 1.08-7.40), perceived causes as ingestion (water and food) (aOR 0.38 CI 0.16-0.89), and substance use (smoking and alcohol) (aOR 1.45 CI 0.98-2.14) were all associated with patient delay. Female gender was associated with LDFU (aOR 3.80, 95% CI 1.62-8.87) but not with delay. Other conditions as prior illness and heredity were also associated with LDFU but not delay (aOR 1.48 CI 1.01-2.17). CONCLUSION: Delay and LDFU after referral from the pharmacies were substantial. Notable effects of diagnosis and female gender indicate a need for more attention to women's health to promote timely and sustained TB treatment. Public awareness to counter misconceptions about the causes of TB is needed.

Preservation of sputum samples with cetylpyridinium chloride (CPC) for tuberculosis cultures and Xpert MTB/RIF in a low-income country.

BACKGROUND: Culture contamination with environmental bacteria is a major challenge in tuberculosis (TB) laboratories in hot and humid climate zones. We studied the effect of cetylpyridinium chloride (CPC) preservation on culture results and performance of Xpert MTB/RIF. METHODS: Consecutive sputum samples from microscopy smear-positive TB patients were collected. Two-hundred samples were equally split in two aliquots, one aliquot was treated with CPC and stored at ambient temperature for 7 days. The second aliquot was immediately processed. Samples were decontaminated for 20, 15 or 10 min, and subsequently cultured on Löwenstein-Jensen medium. Furthermore, 50 samples were stored for 7, 14 and 21 days, and 100 CPC-pretreated samples tested by Xpert MTB/RIF. RESULTS: CPC pretreated samples showed a higher culture yield compared to non-treated sputum samples across all decontamination times: 94% vs. 73% at 10 min (p = 0.01), 94% vs. 64% at 15 min (p = 0.004), and 90% vs. 52% at 20 min (p < 0.001). The quantitative culture grading was consistently higher in CPC treated compared to non-CPC treated samples. The proportion of contaminated cultures was lower in CPC pretreated samples across all decontamination times (range 2-6%) compared to non-CPC treated samples (15-16%). For storage times of CPC treated samples of 7, 14, and 21 days, 84, 86, and 84% of the respective cultures were positive. Of 91 CPC treated samples with a positive culture, 90 were also Xpert MTB/RIF positive. CONCLUSIONS: CPC increases culture yield, decreases the proportion of contamination, and does not alter the performance of Xpert MTB/RIF.

Detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis by EasyNAT diagnostic kit in sputum samples from Tanzania.

The EasyNAT assay was evaluated for the detection of tuberculosis in sputum smears from presumptive pulmonary tuberculosis (TB) patients in an African high-TB and high-HIV setting. The sensitivity of the EasyNAT assay was 66.7%, and the specificity and positive predictive value were 100% for the culture-positive patients. The sensitivity was only 10% in the smear-negative and culture-positive patients.

Diagnostic accuracy of a sequence-specific Mtb-DNA hybridization assay in urine: a case-control study including subclinical TB cases.

Tuberculosis (TB) caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) remains one of the deadliest infectious diseases globally. Timely diagnosis is a key step in the management of TB patients and in the prevention of further transmission events. Current diagnostic tools are limited in these regards. There is an urgent need for new accurate non-sputum-based diagnostic tools for the detection of symptomatic as well as subclinical TB. In this study, we recruited 52 symptomatic TB patients (sputum Xpert MTB/RIF positive) and 58 household contacts to assess the accuracy of a sequence-specific hybridization assay that detects the presence of Mtb cell-free DNA in urine. Using sputum Xpert MTB/RIF as a reference test, the magnetic bead-capture assay could discriminate active TB from healthy household contacts with an overall sensitivity of 72.1% [confidence interval (CI) 0.59-0.86] and specificity of 95.5% (CI 0.90-1.02) with a positive predictive value of 93.9% and negative predictive value of 78.2%. The detection of Mtb-specific DNA in urine suggested four asymptomatic TB infection cases that were confirmed in all instances either by concomitant Xpert MTB/RIF sputum testing or by follow-up investigation raising the specificity of the index test to 100%. We conclude that sequence-specific hybridization assays on urine specimens hold promise as non-invasive tests for the detection of subclinical TB. IMPORTANCE: There is an urgent need for a non-sputum-based diagnostic tool allowing sensitive and specific detection of all forms of tuberculosis (TB) infections. In that context, we performed a case-control study to assess the accuracy of a molecular detection method enabling the identification of cell-free DNA from Mycobacterium tuberculosis that is shed in the urine of tuberculosis patients. We present accuracy data that would fulfill the target product profile for a non-sputum test. In addition, recent epidemiological data suggested that up to 50% of individuals secreting live bacilli do not present with symptoms at the time of screening. We report, here, that the investigated index test could also detect instances of asymptomatic TB infections among household contacts.

Airborne transmission risks of tuberculosis and COVID-19 in schools in South Africa, Switzerland, and Tanzania: Modeling of environmental data.

The COVID-19 pandemic renewed interest in airborne transmission of respiratory infections, particularly in congregate indoor settings, such as schools. We modeled transmission risks of tuberculosis (caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Mtb) and COVID-19 (caused by SARS-CoV-2) in South African, Swiss and Tanzanian secondary schools. We estimated the risks of infection with the Wells-Riley equation, expressed as the median with 2.5% and 97.5% quantiles (credible interval [CrI]), based on the ventilation rate and the duration of exposure to infectious doses (so-called quanta). We computed the air change rate (ventilation) using carbon dioxide (CO2) as a tracer gas and modeled the quanta generation rate based on reported estimates from the literature. The share of infectious students in the classroom is determined by country-specific estimates of pulmonary TB. For SARS-CoV-2, the number of infectious students was estimated based on excess mortality to mitigate the bias from country-specific reporting and testing. Average CO2 concentration (parts per million [ppm]) was 1,610 ppm in South Africa, 1,757 ppm in Switzerland, and 648 ppm in Tanzania. The annual risk of infection for Mtb was 22.1% (interquartile range [IQR] 2.7%-89.5%) in South Africa, 0.7% (IQR 0.1%-6.4%) in Switzerland, and 0.5% (IQR 0.0%-3.9%) in Tanzania. For SARS-CoV-2, the monthly risk of infection was 6.8% (IQR 0.8%-43.8%) in South Africa, 1.2% (IQR 0.1%-8.8%) in Switzerland, and 0.9% (IQR 0.1%-6.6%) in Tanzania. The differences in transmission risks primarily reflect a higher incidence of SARS-CoV-2 and particularly prevalence of TB in South Africa, but also higher air change rates due to better natural ventilation of the classrooms in Tanzania. Global comparisons of the modeled risk of infectious disease transmission in classrooms can provide high-level information for policy-making regarding appropriate infection control strategies.

Diagnostic Yield of Urine Xpert MTB/RIF Ultra in Adults With Suspected Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis.

We assessed the diagnostic yield of urine GeneXpert MTB/RIF Ultra and factors associated with a positive test among adult patients suspected to have extrapulmonary tuberculosis. Urine Ultra was positive in 14% of participants with definite or probable tuberculosis. Hospitalization, disseminated tuberculosis, and human immunodeficiency virus infection were associated with a positive result.

Bacterial diversity dominates variable macrophage responses of tuberculosis patients in Tanzania.

The Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) comprises nine human-adapted lineages that differ in their geographical distribution. Local adaptation of specific MTBC genotypes to the respective human host population has been invoked in this context. We aimed to assess if bacterial genetics governs MTBC pathogenesis or if local co-adaptation translates into differential susceptibility of human macrophages to infection by different MTBC genotypes. We generated macrophages from cryopreserved blood mononuclear cells of Tanzanian tuberculosis patients, from which the infecting MTBC strains had previously been phylogenetically characterized. We infected these macrophages ex vivo with a phylogenetically similar MTBC strain ("matched infection") or with strains representative of other MTBC lineages ("mismatched infection"). We found that L1 infections resulted in a significantly lower bacterial burden and that the intra-cellular replication rate of L2 strains was significantly higher compared the other MTBC lineages, irrespective of the MTBC lineage originally infecting the patients. Moreover, L4-infected macrophages released significantly greater amounts of TNF-α, IL-6, IL-10, MIP-1ß, and IL-1ß compared to macrophages infected by all other strains. While our results revealed no measurable effect of local adaptation, they further highlight the strong impact of MTBC phylogenetic diversity on the variable outcome of the host-pathogen interaction in human tuberculosis.

Prospective multicentre accuracy evaluation of the FUJIFILM SILVAMP TB LAM test for the diagnosis of tuberculosis in people living with HIV demonstrates lot-to-lot variability.

There is an urgent need for rapid, non-sputum point-of-care diagnostics to detect tuberculosis. This prospective trial in seven high tuberculosis burden countries evaluated the diagnostic accuracy of the point-of-care urine-based lipoarabinomannan assay FUJIFILM SILVAMP TB LAM (FujiLAM) among inpatients and outpatients living with HIV. Diagnostic performance of FujiLAM was assessed against a mycobacterial reference standard (sputum culture, blood culture, and Xpert Ultra from urine and sputum at enrollment, and additional sputum culture ≤7 days from enrollment), an extended mycobacterial reference standard (eMRS), and a composite reference standard including clinical evaluation. Of 1637 participants considered for the analysis, 296 (18%) were tuberculosis positive by eMRS. Median age was 40 years, median CD4 cell count was 369 cells/ul, and 52% were female. Overall FujiLAM sensitivity was 54·4% (95% CI: 48·7-60·0), overall specificity was 85·2% (83·2-87·0) against eMRS. Sensitivity and specificity estimates varied between sites, ranging from 26·5% (95% CI: 17·4%-38·0%) to 73·2% (60·4%-83·0%), and 75·0 (65·0%-82·9%) to 96·5 (92·1%-98·5%), respectively. Post-hoc exploratory analysis identified significant variability in the performance of the six FujiLAM lots used in this study. Lot variability limited interpretation of FujiLAM test performance. Although results with the current version of FujiLAM are too variable for clinical decision-making, the lipoarabinomannan biomarker still holds promise for tuberculosis diagnostics. The trial is registered at clinicaltrials.gov (NCT04089423).

CD38 Expression by Antigen-Specific CD4 T Cells Is Significantly Restored 5 Months After Treatment Initiation Independently of Sputum Bacterial Load at the Time of Tuberculosis Diagnosis.

T cell activation markers (TAM) expressed by antigen-specific T cells constitute promising candidates to attest the presence of an active infection by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). Reciprocally, their modulation may be used to assess antibiotic treatment efficacy and eventually attest disease resolution. We hypothesized that the phenotype of Mtb-specific T cells may be quantitatively impacted by the load of bacteria present in a patient. We recruited 105 Tanzanian adult tuberculosis (TB) patients and obtained blood before and after 5 months of antibiotic treatment. We studied relationships between patients' clinical characteristics of disease severity and microbiological as well as molecular proxies of bacterial load in sputum at the time of diagnosis. Besides, we measured by flow cytometry the expression of CD38 or CD27 on CD4+ T cells producing interferon gamma (IFN-γ) and/or tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) in response to a synthetic peptide pool covering the sequences of Mtb antigens ESAT-6, CFP-10, and TB10.4. Reflecting the difficulty to extrapolate bacterial burden from a single end-point read-out, we observed statistically significant but weak correlations between Xpert MTB/RIF, molecular bacterial load assay and time to culture positivity. Unlike CD27, the resolution of CD38 expression by antigen-specific T cells was observed readily following 5 months of antibiotic therapy. However, the intensity of CD38-TAM signals measured at diagnosis did not significantly correlate with Mtb 16S RNA or rpoB DNA detected in patients' sputa. Altogether, our data support CD38-TAM as an accurate marker of infection resolution independently of sputum bacterial load.

Case-control diagnostic accuracy study of a non-sputum CD38-based TAM-TB test from a single milliliter of blood.

CD4 T cell phenotyping-based blood assays have the potential to meet WHO target product profiles (TPP) of non-sputum-biomarker-based tests to diagnose tuberculosis (TB). Yet, substantial refinements are required to allow their implementation in clinical settings. This study assessed the real time performance of a simplified T cell activation marker (TAM)-TB assay to detect TB in adults from one millilitre of blood with a 24 h turnaround time. We recruited 479 GeneXpert positive cases and 108 symptomatic but GeneXpert negative controls from presumptive adult TB patients in the Temeke District of Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania. TAM-TB assay accuracy was assessed by comparison with a composite reference standard comprising GeneXpert and solid culture. A single millilitre of fresh blood was processed to measure expression of CD38 or CD27 by CD4 T cells producing IFN-γ and/or TNF-α in response to a synthetic peptide pool covering the sequences of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) ESAT-6, CFP-10 and TB10.4 antigens on a 4-color FACSCalibur apparatus. Significantly superior to CD27 in accurately diagnosing TB, the CD38-based TAM-TB assay specificity reached 93.4% for a sensitivity of 82.2% with an area under the receiver operating characteristics curve of 0.87 (95% CI 0.84-0.91). The assay performance was not significantly affected by HIV status. To conclude, we successfully implemented TAM-TB immunoassay routine testing with a 24 h turnaround time at district level in a resource limited setting. Starting from one millilitre of fresh blood and being not influenced by HIV status, TAM-TB assay format and performance appears closely compatible with the optimal TPP accuracy criteria defined by WHO for a non-sputum confirmatory TB test.

High burden of tuberculosis infection and disease among people receiving medication-assisted treatment for substance use disorder in Tanzania.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence of tuberculosis (TB) disease and infection as well as incident TB disease among people who use drugs (PWUD) attending Medication Assisted Treatment (MAT) clinics in Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania. METHODS: In this prospective cohort study, a total of 901 consenting participants were enrolled from November 2016 to February 2017 and a structured questionnaire administered to them through the open data kit application on android tablets. Twenty-two months later, we revisited the MAT clinics and reviewed 823 of the 901 enrolled participant's medical records in search for documentation on TB disease diagnosis and treatment. Medical records reviewed included those of participants whom at enrolment were asymptomatic, not on TB disease treatment, not on TB preventive therapy and those who had a documented tuberculin skin test (TST) result. RESULTS: Of the 823 medical records reviewed 22 months after enrolment, 42 had documentation of being diagnosed with TB disease and initiated on TB treatment. This is equivalent to a TB disease incidence rate of 2,925.2 patients per 100,000 person years with a total follow up time of 1,440 person-years. At enrolment the prevalence of TB disease and TB infection was 2.6% and 54% respectively and the HIV prevalence was 44% and 16% among females and males respectively. CONCLUSION: PWUD attending MAT clinics bear an extremely high burden of TB and HIV and are known to have driven TB epidemics in a number of countries. Our reported TB disease incidence is 12 times that of the general Tanzanian incidence of 237 per 100,000 further emphasizing that this group should be prioritized for TB screening, testing and treatment. Gender specific approaches should also be developed as female PWUDs are markedly more affected with HIV and TB disease than male PWUDs.