Intranasal pregnenolone increases acetylcholine in frontal cortex, hippocampus, and amygdala-Preferentially in the hemisphere ipsilateral to the injected nostril.

This study determined the effects of intranasal pregnenolone (IN-PREG) on acetylcholine (ACh) levels in selected areas of the rat brain, using in vivo microdialysis. Previous studies showed that PREG rapidly reaches the rodent brain after intranasal administration and that direct infusion of PREG and PREG-S into the basal forebrain modulates ACh release in frontal cortex, amygdala, and hippocampus. In the present study, we investigated the effects of IN-PREG on the cholinergic system in the rat brain. In the first experiment, IN-PREG (5.6 and 11.2 mg/ml) or vehicle was applied bilaterally, and we hypothesized that IN-PREG would increase ACh levels in amygdala, hippocampus, and frontal cortex, relative to baseline and vehicle. Dialysate was collected for 100 min, based on pilot data of duration of effect. Bilateral IN-PREG (5.6 and 11.2 mg/ml) increased frontal cortex and hippocampal ACh relative to both baseline and vehicle. Moreover, 11.2 mg/ml PREG increased ACh in the amygdala relative to baseline, the lower dose, and vehicle. Therefore, in the second experiment, IN-PREG (11.2 mg/ml) was applied only into one nostril, with vehicle applied into the other nostril, in order to determine whether ACh is predominantly increased in the ipsilateral relative to the contralateral amygdala. Unilateral application of IN-PREG increased ACh in the ipsilateral amygdala, whereas no effect was observed on the contralateral side, suggesting that PREG was transported from the nostrils to the brain via the olfactory epithelial pathway, but not by circulation. The present data provide additional information on IN-PREG action in the cholinergic system of frontal cortex, amygdala, and hippocampus. This may be relevant for therapeutic IN application of PREG in neurogenerative and neuropsychiatric disorders.

Disrupted-in-schizophrenia 1 Protein Misassembly Impairs Cognitive Flexibility and Social Behaviors in a Transgenic Rat Model.

Alterations in cognitive functions, social behaviors and stress reactions are commonly diagnosed in chronic mental illnesses (CMI). Animal models expressing mutant genes associated to CMI represent either rare mutations or those contributing only minimally to genetic risk. Non-genetic causes of CMI can be modeled by disturbing downstream signaling pathways, for example by inducing protein misassembly or aggregation. The Disrupted-in-Schizophrenia 1 (DISC1) gene was identified to be disrupted and thereby haploinsufficient in a large pedigree where it was associated with CMI. In a subset of CMI patients, the DISC1 protein misassembles to an insoluble protein. This has been modeled in a rat (tgDISC1 rat) where the full-length, non mutant human transgene was overexpressed and cognitive impairments were observed. Here, we investigated the scope of effects of DISC1 protein misassembly by investigating spatial memory, social behavior and stress resilience. In water maze tasks, the tgDISC1 rats showed intact spatial learning and memory, but were deficient in flexible adaptation to spatial reversal learning compared to littermate controls. They also displayed less social interaction. Additionally, there was a trend towards increased corticosterone levels after restraint stress in the tgDISC1 rats. Our findings suggest that DISC1 protein misassembly leads to disturbances of cognitive flexibility and social behaviors, and might also be involved in stress sensitization. Since the observed behavioral features resemble symptoms of CMI, the tgDISC1 rat may be a valuable model for the investigation of cognitive, social and - possibly - also stress-related symptoms of major mental illnesses.

ATF/CREB sites present in sub-telomeric regions of Saccharomyces cerevisiae chromosomes are part of promoters and act as UAS/URS of highly conserved COS genes.

A highly conserved 48 bp DNA element was identified present at 26 chromosome ends of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Each element harbours an ideal or a mutated ATF/CREB site, which is a well-known target sequence for bZip transcription factors. In all cases, the sub-telomeric ATF/CREB site element (SACE) is a direct extension of the respective sub-telomeric coreX element. Eight SACEs are part of very long quasi-identical regions of several kilobases, including a sub-telomeric COS open reading frame. Three of these eight SACEs harbour an ideal ATF/CREB site, four a triple-exchange variant (5'-ATGGTATCAT-3'; GTA variant), and one a single exchange variant with a C to G exchange at the left side of the center of symmetry. We analyzed the function of the SACE of the left arm of chromosome VIII in vivo and found its ATF/CREB site to act as UAS/URS of the COS8 promoter, effected by the yeast bZip proteins Sko1p, Aca1p, and Aca2p. Cos8 protein was found in proximity to the nuclear membrane, where it accumulated, especially during cell division. When the ATF/CREB site of the COS8 promoter was exchanged with the GTA variant, the regulation was changed. COS8 was then regulated by Hac1p, a bZip protein known to be involved in the unfolded protein response of S. cerevisiae, indicating, for the first time, a possible functional category for the Cos proteins of S. cerevisiae.

WITHDRAWN: Impact of overexpressed secretory-pathway genes on the secretion of IFNgamma in Hansenula polymorpha applying an rDNA-cointegration approach for assessment.

gamma-Interferon (IFNgamma) is poorly secreted from recombinant Hansenula polymorpha cells in the form of hyperglycosylated molecules. A selection of four secretory-pathway genes was assessed for possible impact on secretion improvements. For assessment, rDNA integration vectors harbouring the H. polymorpha-derived KAR2, PDI, SSO2 or CNE1 gene were co-integrated along with the IFNgamma-integration/expression vector. Overexpression of CNE1 resulted in an increased secretion of the cytokine, predominantly consisting of molecules of distinct size. Deglycosylation with PGNaseF resulted in an M(r) reduction of the secreted IFNgamma corresponding to the removal of two N-linked glycoside chains. Coexpression of KAR2, PDI or SSO2 exhibited no effect.

Fibronectin unfolded by adherent but not suspended platelets: An in vitro explanation for its dual role in haemostasis.

Fibronectin (FN), a dimeric adhesive glycoprotein, which is present both in plasma and the extracellular matrix can interact with platelets and thus contribute to platelet adhesion and aggregation. It has been shown that FN can decrease platelet aggregation but enhance platelet adhesion, suggesting a dual role of FN in haemostasis. The prevalent function(s) of FN may be determined by its fibril form. To explore the suggested dual role of this adhesive protein for haemostasis in further detail, we now tested for any differences of adherent and suspended platelets with regard to their effect to unfold and assemble FN upon interaction. Platelet aggregation and adhesion assays were performed using washed platelets in the presence of exogenous FN. Addition of plasma FN reduced platelet aggregation in response to collagen or PMA by 50% or 25% but enhanced platelet adhesion onto immobilized collagen, as compared to control experiments. Analyses by fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) demonstrated that adherent platelets but not suspended platelets were capable of unfolding FN during 3h incubation. Fluorescence microscopy and deoxycholate (DOC) solubility assays demonstrated that FN fibrils formed only on the surfaces of adherent platelets. In addition, platelets adherent onto FN revealed a significantly higher activity of specific Src phosphorylation (pY418) than platelets in suspension. These data suggest (1) that the function of FN in haemostasis is prevalent to its assembly, unfolding and subsequent fibril formation on the surface of adherent platelets and (2) that outside-in signaling contributes to the interaction of platelets and FN.

Synthesis and release of the bacterial compatible solute 5-hydroxyectoine in Hansenula polymorpha.

Ectoine and 5-hydroxyectoine belong to the family of compatible solutes which are known to mainly contribute to the adaptation of the cell to osmotic stress by mediation of a constant turgor. In addition the cell's essential functions are maintained under stress conditions like high salinity, heat or aridity stress. Hansenula polymorpha was engineered to catalyze the transformation of monomeric substrates to 5-hydroxyectoine. For this purpose four genes encoding the enzymes of the 5-hydroxyectoine biosynthesis pathway of Halomonas elongata, EctA, EctB, EctC, and EctD, were inserted into the genome of H. polymorpha. Subsequently the syntheses of ectoine and 5-hydroxyectoine were analyzed and optimized. We showed that H. polymorpha is a suitable system for recombinant 5-hydroxyectoine synthesis in gram per liter scale (2.8 g L⁻¹ culture supernatant, 365 µmol/g dcw) in which almost 100% conversion of ectoine to 5-hydroxyectoine without necessity of high salinity were achieved.

Improved processing of secretory proteins in Hansenula polymorpha by sequence variation near the processing site of the alpha mating factor prepro sequence.

The literature as well as databases are ambiguous about the exact start of human interleukin-6 (IL-6)--three possibilities for the initiation of the mature protein are described. These three variants of IL-6, different in the exact initiation of the mature protein (A28, P29, or V30), were expressed in Hansenula polymorpha using the Saccharomyces cerevisiae MFα prepro sequence instead of the homologous pre sequence. All three IL-6 variants were secreted but the processing by the Kex2 protease showed significant differences. V30-IL-6 showed correctly processed material but also a molecule species of higher molecular weight indicating incomplete processing of the MFα pro peptide. P29-IL-6 did not yield any correctly processed IL-6, instead only the unprocessed pro form was found in the culture supernatant. Only A28-IL-6 led to 100% correctly processed material. N-terminal sequencing of this material revealed a start at V30--obviously the first two amino acids (Ala28-Pro29) have been removed by a so far unknown protease. Thus expression of both A28-IL-6 and V30-IL-6 as MFα prepro fusion proteins resulted in the very same mature V30-IL-6, however, the ratio of correctly processed molecules was significantly higher in the case of A28-IL-6. The expression of an MFα prepro-interferon α-2a (IFNα-2a) fusion protein in H. polymorpha leads to about 50% correctly processed molecules and 50% misprocessed forms which contain part of the pro peptide at the N-termini. The insertion of A28 and P29 of IL-6 between the pro peptide and the start of the mature IFNα-2a led to correct processing and elimination of all high molecular weight isoforms observed in earlier experiments.

The use of highly expressed FTH1 as carrier protein for cytosolic targeting in Hansenula polymorpha.

The iron storage protein ferritin is a member of the non-heme iron protein family. It can store and release iron, therefore it prevents the cell from damage caused by iron-dioxygen reactions as well as it provides iron for biological processing. To study whether the human ferritin heavy chain (FTH1) can be expressed in Hansenula polymorpha, we integrated an expression cassette for FTH1 and analyzed the protein expression. We found very efficient expression of FTH1 and obtained yields up to 1.9 g/L under non-optimized conditions. Based on this result we designed a FTH1-PTH fusion protein to successfully express the parathyroid hormone fragment 1-34 (PTH) for the first time intracellular in H. polymorpha.

The yeast ubiquitin-like domain protein Mdy2 is required for microtubule-directed nuclear migration and localizes to cytoplasmic granules in response to heat stress.

MDY2 encodes a ubiquitin-like (UBL)-domain protein necessary for efficient mating in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Unlike most UBL proteins, Mdy2 is apparently not subject to C-terminal processing and is localized predominantly in the nucleus. Deletion of MDY2 is associated with a five- to seven-fold reduction in mating efficiency, mainly due to defects in nuclear migration and karyogamy at the prezygotic stage. Here, we looked for two potential interacting partners of Mdy2, investigated the function of Mdy2 in nuclear movement, determined the increased heat sensitivity defects of mdy2Δ mutants, and inspected localization of Mdy2. Coprecipitation studies show that Mdy2 associates with α-tubulin and with the microtubule (MT)-associated dynactin subunit p150(Glued)/Nip100. nip100Δ mutants exhibit no defects in nuclear migration or in MT length or orientation during shmooing growth. Deletion of MDY2 display small nuclear migration phenotype during vegetative growth and seems to exacerbate the defects in mitotic nuclear migration seen in the nip100Δ strain. Deletion of MDY2 increased heat sensitivity of the cells and these strains accumulate mitotic nuclear migration defects and shortened MTs under these conditions. GFP-Mdy2 proteins which are localized predominantly in the nucleus at permissive temperature are localized to cytoplasmic foci during heat shock. Colocalization studies revealed that heat stress-induced enrichment of Mdy2 in cytoplasmic foci merged mainly with stress granules marker Pab1. During glucose deprivation a minority of Mdy2 foci overlapped with P-bodies marker Dcp2, while most Mdy2 foci and Pab1 foci overlap. Accordingly, we propose that Mdy2 plays a critical role in the MT-dependent processes of karyogamy and stress response.

Increase of calnexin gene dosage boosts the secretion of heterologous proteins by Hansenula polymorpha.

The type I membrane protein calnexin is a conserved key component of the quality control mechanism in the endoplasmic reticulum. It functions as a molecular chaperone that monitors the folding state of nascent polypeptides entering the endoplasmic reticulum. Calnexin also behaves as a lectin, as its chaperoning activity involves binding of oligosaccharide moieties present on newly imported glycoproteins. We isolated the calnexin gene (HpCNE1) from the methylotrophic yeast Hansenula polymorpha, and used HpCNE1 expression plasmids for super-transformation of H. polymorpha strains secreting target proteins of biotechnological interest. The elevated dosage of HpCNE1 enhanced secretion of the four proteins tested: three glycoproteins and one unglycosylated product. Secretion of bacterial alginate epimerase AlgE1 was increased threefold on average, and secretion of both human interferon-gamma and fungal consensus phytase twofold. With phytase and AlgE1 this improvement was all the more remarkable, as the secretion level was already high in the original strains (g L(-1) range). The same approach improved secretion of human serum albumin, which lacks N-linked glycans, about twofold. Glycosylation of the pro-MFalpha1 leader may account for the effect of calnexin in this case. Our results argue that cooverexpression of calnexin can serve as a generally applicable tool for enhancing the secretion of all types of heterologous protein by H. polymorpha.

Mdy2, a ubiquitin-like (UBL)-domain protein, is required for efficient mating in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

MDY2, a gene required for efficient mating of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, was characterized in this study. The gene encodes a protein of 212 amino acids, which contains a ubiquitin-like (UBL) domain (residues 74-149). Deletion of MDY2 is associated with a five- to sevenfold reduction in mating efficiency, mainly due to defects in nuclear migration and karyogamy at the prezygotic stage. However, prior to mating pair fusion, shmoo formation is reduced by 30%, with a concomitant failure to form mating pairs. Strikingly, migration of the nucleus into the shmoo tip is also delayed or fails to occur. In addition, we show that in mdy2 mutants, microtubule bundles, as well as the microtubule end-binding protein Kar9, fail to localize properly to the shmoo tip, suggesting that the nuclear migration defect could be due to aberrant localization of Kar9. Pheromone signal transduction (as measured by FUS1 induction by alpha-factor) is not affected in mdy2delta mutants and mitosis is also normal in these cells. MDY2 is not induced by mating pheromone. In vegetatively growing cells, GFP-Mdy2 is localized in the nucleus, and remains nuclear after exposure of cells to alpha-factor. His-tagged Mdy2 shows no evidence of the C-terminal processing typical of ubiquitin, and also localizes to the nucleus. Thus MDY2 is a novel gene, whose product plays a role in shmoo formation and in nuclear migration in the pre-zygote, possibly by interacting with other UBL-type proteins that possess ubiquitin association (UBA) domains.

Integration of heterologous genes in several yeast species using vectors containing a Hansenula polymorpha-derived rDNA-targeting element.

A method that has been successfully used to generate recombinant Hansenula polymorpha strains by transformation with rDNA-targeting vectors was applied in the present study to a range of alternative yeast hosts, using vectors with an H. polymorpha-derived integration sequence. The dimorphic yeast Arxula adeninivorans, which is currently being assessed for heterologous gene expression, was the main focus of the study. As in H. polymorpha, it was possible to co-integrate more than a single plasmid carrying an expressible gene. Additionally, the vectors were examined in two further species, Pichia stipitis and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Based on these results the design of a 'universal' fungal vector appears to be feasible.

The Hansenula polymorpha MOX gene presents two alternative transcription start points differentially utilized and sensitive to respiratory activity.

The peroxisomal methanol metabolism of Hansenula polymorpha depends on a group of genes that are coordinately regulated. Methanol oxidase (Mox) plays a key role in this pathway and its synthesis has been shown to be regulated at the transcriptional level. MOX expression is strongly repressed on glucose and activated on glycerol or methanol. In this study we have identified two MOX transcripts that are differentially expressed along MOX derepression. The first one, named l-MOX (for longer MOX), starts at position -425, is only weakly and transiently transcribed and is not translated into the Mox protein. The other is the true MOX mRNA, which initiates around position -25. Using a strain bearing multiple copies of MOX(Q1N) and a reporter gene fused to the MOX promoter, regulation of the two transcripts was investigated. Initiation of the true MOX correlates with repression of l-MOX and conditions that are repressive for MOX transcription, such as the inhibition of mitochondrial activity, lead to higher levels of l-MOX expression. This effect was first observed in a mox mutant (Q1N-M8) unable to grow on nonfermentable carbon sources. No function was detected for l-MOX, but its regulation follows a pattern similar to that of catalase, which is essential for methanol metabolism. This suggests that, l-MOX, although precisely regulated, seems to be a remnant of the evolution of the methanol metabolism network.

The Hansenula polymorpha (strain CBS4732) genome sequencing and analysis.

The methylotrophic yeast Hansenula polymorpha is a recognised model system for investigation of peroxisomal function, special metabolic pathways like methanol metabolism, of nitrate assimilation or thermostability. Strain RB11, an odc1 derivative of the particular H. polymorpha isolate CBS4732 (synonymous to ATCC34438, NRRL-Y-5445, CCY38-22-2) has been developed as a platform for heterologous gene expression. The scientific and industrial significance of this organism is now being met by the characterisation of its entire genome. The H. polymorpha RB11 genome consists of approximately 9.5 Mb and is organised as six chromosomes ranging in size from 0.9 to 2.2 Mb. Over 90% of the genome was sequenced with concomitant high accuracy and assembled into 48 contigs organised on eight scaffolds (supercontigs). After manual annotation 4767 out of 5933 open reading frames (ORFs) with significant homologies to a non-redundant protein database were predicted. The remaining 1166 ORFs showed no significant similarity to known proteins. The number of ORFs is comparable to that of other sequenced budding yeasts of similar genome size.