Aspirin Modifies Inflammatory Mediators and Metabolomic Profiles and Contributes to the Suppression of Obesity-Associated Breast Cancer Cell Growth.

Breast cancer is the most common cancer among women. Adiposity generally accompanies immune cell infiltration and cytokine secretion, which is ideal for tumor development. Aspirin is a chemopreventive agent against several types of cancer. The aim of this study was to investigate whether aspirin inhibits the growth of 4T1 breast cancer cells by inhibiting the inflammatory response and regulating the metabolomic profile of 3T3-L1 adipocytes. 3T3-L1 adipocyte-conditioned medium (Ad-CM) was used to mimic the obese adipose tissue microenvironment in 4T1 cells. The results revealed that aspirin inhibited macrophage chemoattractant protein (MCP-1), interleukin (IL-6), IL-1ß, and plasminogen activator inhibitor (PAI-1) production in 3T3-L1 adipocytes stimulated by tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS). In the obesity-associated model, Ad-CM significantly promoted 4T1 cell growth and migration, which were attenuated after aspirin treatment. The results of metabolic analyses using Ad-CM showed that amino acid metabolites and oxidative stress were increased in mature 3T3-L1 adipocytes compared to those in fibroblasts. Aspirin treatment modified metabolites involved in suppressing lipogenesis, oxidative stress, and neoplastic formation. In the relative fatty acid quantitation analysis of Ad-CM, aspirin diminished fatty acid contents of C16:1, C18:1, C18:2, C20:4, and C24:1. This study is the first to show that aspirin modifies the metabolomics and fatty acid composition of 3T3-L1 adipocytes and inhibits obesity-associated inflammation that contributes to obesity-related breast cancer cell growth and migration.

Aspirin Disrupts the Crosstalk of Angiogenic and Inflammatory Cytokines between 4T1 Breast Cancer Cells and Macrophages.

The tumor microenvironment is rich in multiple cell types that influence tumor development. Macrophages infiltrate tumors, where they are the most abundant immune cell population and secrete a number of cytokines. Aspirin acts as a chemopreventive agent against cancer development. This study investigated whether aspirin regulates crosstalk between breast cancer cells and macrophages. To study these interactions in a tumor microenvironment, a conditioned media was employed using 4T1 breast cancer cells cultured in RAW 264.7 cell-conditioned medium (RAW-CM), and a cocultured model of both cells was used. When 4T1 cells were cultured in the RAW-CM, there were increases in cell viability and secretion of the cytokines VEGF, PAI-1, TNF-α, and IL-6. Treatment with aspirin inhibited 4T1 cell growth and migration and MCP-1, PAI-1, and IL-6 production. In the coculture of both cells, aspirin inhibited secretion of MCP-1, IL-6, and TGF-ß. Furthermore, aspirin significantly decreased the M2 macrophage marker CD206, but increased M1 marker CD11c expression. In summary, aspirin treatment inhibited the crosstalk of 4T1 and RAW 264.7 cells through regulation of angiogenic and inflammatory mediator production and influenced the M1/M2 macrophage subtype. This highlighted that aspirin suppresses the tumor favorable microenvironment and could be a promising agent against triple-negative breast cancer.

Updating the research on the chemopreventive and therapeutic role of the peptide lunasin.

Chronic diseases have become the medical challenge of the 21st century because of their high incidence and mortality rates. Modulation of diet and lifestyle habits is considered as the best strategy for the prevention of these disorders. Health promoting benefits beyond their nutritional effects have been described for multiple dietary compounds. Among these compounds, the peptide lunasin is considered as one of the most promising. Naturally present in soybean, lunasin has been extensively studied in the last two decades because of its potential against chronic diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular and immunological disorders. The purpose of this article is to summarise the evidence on the presence of lunasin in soybean and derived foods, and its bioavailability once it is orally ingested. The protective and therapeutic effects of this peptide against cancer, oxidative stress, inflammation, and high cholesterol levels as well as the molecular mechanisms of action involved in these effects are also described in this review. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

Chemopreventive role of food-derived proteins and peptides: A review.

Cancer is one of the leading causes of mortality and disability worldwide. Although great advances in cancer treatments such as chemotherapy, surgery, and radiation are currently being achieved, their application is associated with numerous and expensive adverse side effects. Epidemiological evidence has demonstrated that the consumption of certain foods potentially prevents up to 35% of cancer cases. Bioactive components are ubiquitous in nature, also in dietary food, providing an essential link in health maintenance, promotion, and prevention of chronic diseases, such as cancer. Development of bioactive proteins and peptides is a current and innovative strategy for cancer prevention/cure. A growing body of anticancer protein and peptides from natural sources has shown the ability to reduce tumor progression through multiple mechanisms including apoptotic, antiproliferative, antiangiogenic, and immunomodulatory activities. This review is focused on proteins and peptides from different food sources including plants, milk, egg, and marine organisms in which chemopreventive properties have been demonstrated. Other aspects such as mechanism of action, bioavailability, and identification and characterization of food-derived peptides by advance separated technologies are also included. This review highlights the potential application of food-derived peptides as functional food ingredients and pharmaceutical candidates in the auxiliary therapy of cancer.

Lunasin Attenuates Obesity-Associated Metastasis of 4T1 Breast Cancer Cell through Anti-Inflammatory Property.

Obesity prevalence is increasing worldwide and is accompanied by low-grade inflammation with macrophage infiltration, which is linked with a poorer breast cancer prognosis. Lunasin is a natural seed peptide with chemopreventive properties and multiple bioactivities. This is the first study to explore the chemopreventive effects of lunasin in the obesity-related breast cancer condition using 4T1 breast cancer cells, 3T3-L1 adipocytes, and conditioned media. An obesity-related environment, such as leptin-treatment or adipocyte-conditioned medium (Ad-CM), promoted 4T1 cell proliferation and metastasis. Lunasin treatment inhibited metastasis of breast cancer cells, partially through modestly inhibiting production of the angiogenesis-mediator vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and significantly by inhibiting secretion in the Ad-CM condition. Subsequently, two adipocytes inflammation models, 3T3-L1 adipocytes were stimulated by tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, and RAW 264.7 cell-conditioned medium (RAW-CM) was used to mimic the obese microenvironment. Lunasin significantly inhibited interleukin (IL)-6 and macrophage chemoattractant protein (MCP)-1 secretion by TNF-α stimulation, and MCP-1 secretion in the RAW-CM model. This study highlights that lunasin suppressed 3T3-L1 adipocyte inflammation and inhibited 4T1 breast cancer cell migration. Interestingly, lunasin exerted more effective anti-metastasis activity in the obesity-related condition models, indicating that it possesses anti-inflammatory properties and blocks adipocyte-cancer cell cross-talk.

An Innovative Design to Enhance Osteoinductive Efficacy and Biomechanical Behavior of a Titanium Dental Implant.

The present study investigated the in vivo bone-forming efficacy of an innovative titanium (Ti) dental implant combined with a collagen sponge containing recombinant human bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2) in a pig model. Two different concentrations of BMP-2 (20 and 40 µg/mL) were incorporated into collagen sponges and placed at the bottom of Ti dental implants. The investigated implants were inserted into the edentulous ridge at the canine-premolar regions of Lanyu small-ear pigs, which were then euthanized at weeks 1, 2, 4, 8, and 12 post-implantation. Specimens containing the implants and surrounding bone tissue were collected for histological evaluation of their bone-to-implant contact (BIC) ratios and calculation of maximum torques using removal torque measurement. Analytical results showed that the control and BMP-2-loaded implants presented good implant stability and bone healing for all testing durations. After 1 week of healing, the BMP-2-loaded implants with a concentration of 20 µg/mL exhibited the highest BIC ratios, ranging from 58% to 76%, among all groups (p = 0.034). Additionally, they also possessed the highest removal torque values (50.1 ± 1.3 N-cm) throughout the 8-week healing period. The BMP-2-loaded implants not only displayed excellent in vivo biocompatibility but also presented superior osteoinductive performance. Therefore, these findings demonstrate that BMP-2 delivered through a collagen sponge can potentially enhance the early-stage osseointegration of Ti dental implants.

Seed-derived peptide lunasin suppressed breast cancer cell growth by regulating inflammatory mediators, aromatase, and estrogen receptors.

Background: Breast cancer is one of the most prevalent cancers in women. Its pathology comprises tumor cells and nearby stromal cells, accompanied by cytokines and stimulated molecules, resulting in a favorable microenvironment for tumor progression. Lunasin is a seed peptide with multiple bioactivities derived from seeds. However, the chemopreventive effect of lunasin on different characteristics of breast cancer has not been fully explored. Objective: This study aims to explore the chemopreventive mechanisms of lunasin through inflammatory mediators and estrogen-related molecules in breast cancer cells. Design: Estrogen-dependent MCF-7 and independent MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells were used. The ß-estradiol was used to mimic physiological estrogen. The gene expression, mediator secretion, cell vitality, and apoptosis impacting breast malignancy were explored. Results: Lunasin did not affect normal MCF-10A cell growth but inhibited breast cancer cell growth, increased interleukin (IL)-6 gene expression and protein production at 24 h, and decreased its secretion at 48 h. In both breast cancer cells, aromatase gene and activity and estrogen receptor (ER)α gene expression were decreased by lunasin treatment, while ERß gene levels were significantly increased in MDA-MB-231 cells. Moreover, lunasin decreased vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) secretion and cell vitality and induced cell apoptosis in both breast cancer cell lines. However, lunasin only decreased leptin receptor (Ob-R) mRNA expression in MCF-7 cells. Additionally, ß-estradiol increased MCF-7-cell proliferation but not the proliferation of other cells; in particular, lunasin still inhibited MCF-7-cell growth and cell vitality in the presence of ß-estradiol. Conclusion: Seed peptide lunasin inhibited breast cancer cell growth by regulating inflammatory, angiogenic, and estrogen-related molecules, suggesting that lunasin is a promising chemopreventive agent.

Lunasin ameliorates glucose utilization in C2C12 myotubes and metabolites profile in diet-induced obese mice benefiting metabolic disorders.

AIMS: Obesity is the main cause of low-grade inflammation and oxidation, resulting in insulin resistance. This study aimed to investigate the effects of a seed peptide lunasin on glucose utilization in C2C12 myotubes and the metabolite profiles in obese mice. MAIN METHODS: C2C12 myotubes were challenged by palmitic acid (PA) to mimic the obese microenvironment and inflammation, cell vitality, and glucose utilization were determined. C57BL6/j mice were divided into low-fat diet (LF), high-fat diet (HF), and HF with intraperitoneally injected lunasin (HFL) groups. Glucose intolerance and metabolite profiles of the tissues were analyzed. KEY FINDINGS: In vitro, C2C12 myotubes treated with lunasin showed decreased proinflammatory cytokines and increased cell vitality under palmitic acid conditions. Lunasin improved glucose uptake and glucose transporter 4 expression by activating insulin receptor substrate-1 and AKT phosphorylation. Next-generation sequencing revealed that lunasin regulates genes expression by promoting insulin secretion and decreasing oxidative stress. In vivo, HF mice showed increased tricarboxylic acid cycle and uric acid metabolites but decreased bile acids metabolites and specific amino acids. Lunasin intervention improved glucose intolerance and modulated metabolites associated with increased insulin sensitivity and decreased metabolic disorders. SIGNIFICANCE: This study is the first to reveal that lunasin is a promising regulator of anti-inflammation, anti-oxidation, and glucose utilization in myotubes and ameliorating glucose uptake and metabolite profiles in obese mice, contributing to glucose homeostasis and benefiting metabolic disorders.

An Innovative Biofunctional Composite Hydrogel with Enhanced Printability, Rheological Properties, and Structural Integrity for Cell Scaffold Applications.

The present study was conducted to manipulate various biomaterials to find potential hydrogel formulations through three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting fabrication for tissue repair, reconstruction, or regeneration. The hydrogels were prepared using sodium alginate and gelatin combined with different concentrations of Pluronic F127 (6% (3 g), 8% (4 g), and 10% (5 g)) and were marked as AGF-6%, AGF-8%, and AGF-10%, respectively. The properties of the hydrogels were investigated using a contact angle goniometer, rheometer, and 3D bioprinter. In addition, the osteoblast-like cell line (MG-63) was used to evaluate the cell viability including hydrogels before and after 3D bioprinting. It was found that the ratio of contact angle was lowest at AGF-6%, and the rheological results were higher for all samples of AGF-6%, AGF-8%, and AGF-10% compared with the control sample. The printability indicated that the AGF-6% hydrogel possessed great potential in creating a cell scaffold with shape integrity. Moreover, the live/dead assay also presented the highest numbers of live cells before printing compared with after printing. However, the number of live cells on day 7 was higher than on day 1 before and after printing (** p < 0.01). Therefore, the combination of AGF-6% could be developed as a biofunctional hydrogel formulation for potential tissue regeneration applications.

Biomechanical stress distribution of medical inelastic fabrics with different porosity structures.

Clothing fit and pressure comfort play important role in clothing comfort, especially in medical body sculpting clothing (MBSC). In the present study, different body movements (forward bending, side bending, and twisting) were adopted to simulate and investigate the biomechanical stress distribution of the human body with three kinds of porosity inelastic MBSCs through the finite element analysis method. The elastic modulus of the investigated MBSCs was also measured by means of tensile testing. Analytical results showed that in the compression region during body movements, the investigated inelastic MBSCs endured less compression stress, and most of the stress was transmitted to the human body. Moreover, the stresses on the body surface were decreased with the porosity increasing. However, most of the von Mises stresses on the human body were in the desired pressure comfort range. Therefore, these results could provide potential information in the modification of MBSC for medical applications.

Three-Dimensional Printing of a Hybrid Bioceramic and Biopolymer Porous Scaffold for Promoting Bone Regeneration Potential.

In this study, we proposed a three-dimensional (3D) printed porous (termed as 3DPP) scaffold composed of bioceramic (beta-tricalcium phosphate (ß-TCP)) and thermoreversible biopolymer (pluronic F-127 (PF127)) that may provide bone tissue ingrowth and loading support for bone defect treatment. The investigated scaffolds were printed in three different ranges of pore sizes for comparison (3DPP-1: 150−200 µm, 3DPP-2: 250−300 µm, and 3DPP-3: 300−350 µm). The material properties and biocompatibility of the 3DPP scaffolds were characterized using scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffractometry, contact angle goniometry, compression testing, and cell viability assay. In addition, micro-computed tomography was applied to investigate bone regeneration behavior of the 3DPP scaffolds in the mini-pig model. Analytical results showed that the 3DPP scaffolds exhibited well-defined porosity, excellent microstructural interconnectivity, and acceptable wettability (θ < 90°). Among all groups, the 3DPP-1 possessed a significantly highest compressive force 273 ± 20.8 Kgf (* p < 0.05). In vitro experiment results also revealed good cell viability and cell attachment behavior in all 3DPP scaffolds. Furthermore, the 3DPP-3 scaffold showed a significantly higher percentage of bone formation volume than the 3DPP-1 scaffold at week 8 (* p < 0.05) and week 12 (* p < 0.05). Hence, the 3DPP scaffold composed of ß-TCP and F-127 is a promising candidate to promote bone tissue ingrowth into the porous scaffold with decent biocompatibility. This scaffold particularly fabricated with a pore size of around 350 µm (i.e., 3DPP-3 scaffold) can provide proper loading support and promote bone regeneration in bone defects when applied in dental and orthopedic fields.

Lunasin-aspirin combination against NIH/3T3 cells transformation induced by chemical carcinogens.

Carcinogenesis is a multistage process involving a number of molecular pathways sensitive to intervention. Chemoprevention is defined as the use of natural and/or synthetic substances to block, reverse, or retard the process of carcinogenesis. To achieve greater inhibitory effects on cancer cells, combination of two or more chemopreventive agents is commonly considered as a better preventive and/or therapeutic strategy. Lunasin is a promising cancer preventive peptide identified in soybean and other seeds. Its efficacy has been demonstrated by both in vitro and in vivo models. This peptide has been found to inhibit human breast cancer MDA-MB-231 cells proliferation, suppressing cell cycle progress and inducing cell apoptosis. Moreover, lunasin potentiates the effects on these cells of different synthetic and natural compounds, such as aspirin and anacardic acid. This study explored the role of lunasin, alone and in combination with aspirin and anacardic acid on cell proliferation and foci formation of transformed NIH/3T3 cells induced by chemical carcinogens 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene or 3-methylcholanthrene. The results revealed that lunasin, acting as a single agent, inhibits cell proliferation and foci formation. When combined with aspirin, these effects were significantly increased, indicating that this combination might be a promising strategy to prevent/treat cancer induced by chemical carcinogens.

Seed peptide lunasin ameliorates obesity-induced inflammation and regulates immune responses in C57BL/6J mice fed high-fat diet.

Obesity causes immune cells to infiltrate into adipose tissues and secrete proinflammatory mediators, promoting the development of chronic diseases. The seed peptide lunasin has been reported to have several bioactivities. We aimed to investigate the immunomodulatory properties of lunasin in obese models. Female and male C57BL/6J mice were divided into three groups: low-fat diet (LF), high-fat diet (HF), and HF with an intraperitoneal injection of lunasin (HFL). In females, lunasin decreased the levels of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), interleukin (IL)-1ß, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α) produced in peritoneal macrophages, indicating a decrease in F4/80+ macrophage infiltration, especially the CD11c + M1 phenotype. Serum leptin and tissue-oxidized lipid malondialdehyde levels were decreased in the HFL group. In males, lunasin normalized the obesity-induced increase in spleen size and splenocyte numbers. Moreover, lunasin inhibited IL-6 secretion while promoting interferon gamma (IFN-γ) and IL-2 production in the splenocytes. In vitro, lunasin increased EL-4 T-cell proliferation and IL-2 production in activated T cells under obese conditions. Thus, lunasin is a potential natural compound that promotes immunomodulation in both female and male obese mice in a sex-dependent manner. Furthermore, lunasin mediates the anti-inflammatory response and enhances the T helper type 1 cell response to obesity-related immune disorders.

Lunasin is prevalent in barley and is bioavailable and bioactive in in vivo and in vitro studies.

Lunasin, a unique 43-amino acid peptide found in a number of seeds, has been shown to be chemopreventive in mammalian cells and in a skin cancer mouse model. To elucidate the role of cereals in cancer prevention, we report here the prevalence, bioavailability, and bioactivity of lunasin from barley. Lunasin is present in all cultivars of barley analyzed. The liver and kidney of rats fed with lunasin-enriched barley (LEB) show the presence of lunasin in Western blot. Lunasin extracted from the kidney and liver inhibits the activities of HATs (histone acetyl transferases), yGCN5 by 20% and 18% at 100 nM, and PCAF activity by 25% and 24% at 100 nM, confirming that the peptide is intact and bioactive. Purified barley lunasin localizes in the nuclei of NIH 3T3 cells. Barley lunasin added to NIH 3T3 cells in the presence of the chemical carcinogen MCA activates the expression of tumor suppressors p21 and p15 by 45% and 47%, decreases cyclin D1 by 98%, and inhibits Rb hyperphosphorylation by 45% compared with the MCA treatment alone. We conclude that lunasin is prevalent in barley, bioavailable, and bioactive and that consumption of barley could play an important role of cancer prevention in barley-consuming populations.

Evaluating the impact of soy compounds on breast cancer using the data mining approach.

Accumulating evidence has shown that soy intake is associated with the promotion of health and prevention of cancers. However, the relationship between the intake of soy compounds and the risk of breast cancer is still debatable. In this study, we use mathematical models for assessing the impact of soy phytoestrogens and protein/peptide intervention on breast cancer development using the datasets acquired from a large number of published studies. We used data mining models, including the decision tree classification and association rule methods, to analyze 478 data collected from 201 research papers. The results indicated that the intervention of soy proteins and peptides, especially lunasin (LUN) and bowman-birk protease inhibitor (BBI), has a positive impact on different types of breast cancer, while the effects of soy phytoestrogens are inconsistent in breast cancer development. Among soy phytoestrogens, daidzein (DAI) exhibited the highest negative impact on breast cancer, followed by coumestrol (COU), soysapogenol (SAP), genistein (GEN), and equol (EQ). With regard to the type of cancer, phytoestrogens should be carefully considered in estrogen receptor (ER)+ or progesterone receptor (PR)+ breast cancer. In the case of ER-, PR- or triple negative type, both soy categories can be used as auxiliary interventions. In summary, this is the first study to use data mining to explore the relationship between the intake of soy phytoestrogens or proteins/peptides and breast cancer development. Our findings indicate that soy intervention might reduce breast cancer development. However, the specific soy compound and cancer type should be considered before allocating a precise nutrient intervention.

Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of cancer preventive peptide lunasin in RAW 264.7 macrophages.

Oxidative stress and inflammation are two of the most critical factors implicated in carcinogenesis and other degenerative disorders. We have investigated how lunasin, a known anti-cancer seed peptide, affect these factors. This peptide inhibits linoleic acid oxidation and acts as 2,2'-azinobis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) diammonium salt (ABTS) radical scavenger. Furthermore, using LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages, we have demonstrated that lunasin reduces, in a significant dose-dependent manner, the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by LPS-induced macrophages. Lunasin also inhibits the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor-alpha [TNF-alpha] and interleukine-6 [IL-6]). On the basis of these potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, we propose lunasin not only as a cancer preventive and therapeutic agent but also as an agent against other inflammatory-related disorders.

Lunasin, a novel seed peptide for cancer prevention.

Carcinogenesis is a multistage process derived from a combination of multiple heritable and environmental factors. It has been reported that populations consuming high levels of soybean products have both lower cancer incidence and mortality rates in the western countries. Lunasin is a novel and promising peptide initially discovered in soy and now found in wheat, barley and other seeds. Its cancer-preventive efficacy has been shown in mammalian cells which were induced by chemical carcinogens and viral oncogenes. Moreover, this peptide has been found to prevent skin cancer in a mouse cancer model induced by chemical carcinogens. Its bioavailability after oral administration makes it a perfect candidate as a chemopreventive agent. The purpose of this article is to review the discovery of this seed peptide and the most recent evidence on its possible benefits as an anticancer agent.

Lunasin attenuates obesity-related inflammation in RAW264.7 cells and 3T3-L1 adipocytes by inhibiting inflammatory cytokine production.

Obesity has become a major threat to public health and is accompanied by chronic low-grade inflammation, which leads to various pathological developments. Lunasin, a natural seed peptide, exhibits several biological activities, such as anti-carcinogenesis, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant activities. However, the mechanism of action of lunasin in obesity-related inflammation has not been investigated. The aim of this study was to explore whether lunasin could reduce the inflammation induced by obesity-related mediators in RAW264.7 cells and 3T3-L1 adipocytes and whether it could attenuate the crosstalk between the two cell lines. RAW264.7 cells were cultured in leptin-containing medium, adipocyte-conditioned medium (Ad-CM), or co-cultured with 3T3-L1 cells to mimic the physiology of obesity. The data showed that the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-1ß (IL-1ß) was inhibited by lunasin after leptin activation of RAW264.7 cells. In addition, lunasin decreased monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) and IL-1ß secretions in the Ad-CM model. Cytokine MCP-1, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, and IL-1ß secretions were significantly decreased by leptin or Ad-CM plus lipopolysaccharide stimulation. Subsequently, the co-culture of the two cells refined the direct relation between them, resulting in apparently increased MCP-1, and decreased IL-6 levels after lunasin treatment. In 3T3-L1 adipocytes, lunasin also exhibited anti-inflammatory property by inhibiting MCP-1, plasminogen activator inhibitor-1, and leptin productions stimulated by (TNF)-α, lipopolysaccharide, or RAW264.7 cell-conditioned medium. This result revealed that lunasin acts as a potential anti-inflammatory agent not only in macrophages but also in adipocytes, disrupting the crosstalk between these two cells. Therefore, this study suggests the intake of lunasin from diet or as a supplement, for auxiliary prevention or therapy in obesity-related inflammatory applications.

Obesity enhances carcinogen 7, 12-Dimethylbenz [a] anthracene -induced tumorigenesis in vitro and in vivo.

Growing body of evidence shows that extra adiposity influences on the progression of multiple cancers, including breast cancer. The aim of this study is to investigate whether obesity correlates with mammary tumor development in vitro and in vivo. We found that obesity-related mediators, 3T3-L1 adipocyte conditioned medium, enhanced formation of cancerous foci induced by the carcinogen 7,12-Dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA) in NIH/3T3 fibroblasts, in vitro. Additionally, we tested the effect of obesity in mouse model of DMBA-induced breast cancer. C57BL/6J female mice were fed a low fat (LF), or high fat (HF) diet, and DMBA was administered by oral gavage (LF plus DMBA [LFD] and HF plus DMBA [HFD]). Our results indicated that HFD mouse developed a tumor which weight was 169mg, whereas the LFD mouse developed a tumor weight of 77mg. Histological analysis of the mammary tumor from HFD group showed morphological aggressiveness and multiple cell type infiltration compared to LFD group. The epididymal adipose tissue from the DMBA groups showed more macrophage infiltration, polarized towards an M1 phenotype compared to the non-DMBA mice. HF mice showed less accumulation of M2 macrophages in the adipose tissue. In summary, obese mediators enhanced DMBA induced tumorigenesis in vitro and in vivo.