Neuronal Inactivity Co-opts LTP Machinery to Drive Potassium Channel Splicing and Homeostatic Spike Widening.

Homeostasis of neural firing properties is important in stabilizing neuronal circuitry, but how such plasticity might depend on alternative splicing is not known. Here we report that chronic inactivity homeostatically increases action potential duration by changing alternative splicing of BK channels; this requires nuclear export of the splicing factor Nova-2. Inactivity and Nova-2 relocation were connected by a novel synapto-nuclear signaling pathway that surprisingly invoked mechanisms akin to Hebbian plasticity: Ca2+-permeable AMPA receptor upregulation, L-type Ca2+ channel activation, enhanced spine Ca2+ transients, nuclear translocation of a CaM shuttle, and nuclear CaMKIV activation. These findings not only uncover commonalities between homeostatic and Hebbian plasticity but also connect homeostatic regulation of synaptic transmission and neuronal excitability. The signaling cascade provides a full-loop mechanism for a classic autoregulatory feedback loop proposed ∼25 years ago. Each element of the loop has been implicated previously in neuropsychiatric disease.

EF1α-associated protein complexes affect dendritic spine plasticity by regulating microglial phagocytosis in Fmr1 knock-out mice.

Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is the most common inherited cause of intellectual disability. There is no specific treatment for FXS due to the lack of therapeutic targets. We report here that Elongation Factor 1α (EF1α) forms a complex with two other proteins: Tripartite motif-containing protein 3 (TRIM3) and Murine double minute (Mdm2). Both EF1α-Mdm2 and EF1α-TRIM3 protein complexes are increased in the brain of Fmr1 knockout mice as a result of FMRP deficiency, which releases the normal translational suppression of EF1α mRNA and increases EF1α protein levels. Increased EF1α-Mdm2 complex decreases PSD-95 ubiquitination (Ub-PSD-95) and Ub-PSD-95-C1q interaction. The elevated level of TRIM3-EF1α complex is associated with decreased TRIM3-Complement Component 3 (C3) complex that inhibits the activation of C3. Both protein complexes thereby contribute to a reduction in microglia-mediated phagocytosis and dendritic spine pruning. Finally, we created a peptide that disrupts both protein complexes and restores dendritic spine plasticity and behavioural deficits in Fmr1 knockout mice. The EF1α-Mdm2 and EF1α-TRIM3 complexes could thus be new therapeutic targets for FXS.

Pain experience reduces social avoidance to others in pain: a c-Fos-based functional connectivity network study in mice.

Pain experience increases individuals' perception and contagion of others' pain, but whether pain experience affects individuals' affiliative or antagonistic responses to others' pain is largely unknown. Additionally, the neural mechanisms underlying how pain experience modulates individuals' responses to others' pain remain unclear. In this study, we explored the effects of pain experience on individuals' responses to others' pain and the underlying neural mechanisms. By comparing locomotion, social, exploration, stereotyped, and anxiety-like behaviors of mice without any pain experience (naïve observers) and mice with a similar pain experience (experienced observers) when they observed the pain-free demonstrator with intraperitoneal injection of normal saline and the painful demonstrator with intraperitoneal injection of acetic acid, we found that pain experience of the observers led to decreased social avoidance to the painful demonstrator. Through whole-brain c-Fos quantification, we discovered that pain experience altered neuronal activity and enhanced functional connectivity in the mouse brain. The analysis of complex network and graph theory exhibited that functional connectivity networks and activated hub regions were altered by pain experience. Together, these findings reveal that neuronal activity and functional connectivity networks are involved in the modulation of individuals' responses to others' pain by pain experience.

BDNF produced by cerebral microglia promotes cortical plasticity and pain hypersensitivity after peripheral nerve injury.

Peripheral nerve injury-induced mechanical allodynia is often accompanied by abnormalities in the higher cortical regions, yet the mechanisms underlying such maladaptive cortical plasticity remain unclear. Here, we show that in male mice, structural and functional changes in the primary somatosensory cortex (S1) caused by peripheral nerve injury require neuron-microglial signaling within the local circuit. Following peripheral nerve injury, microglia in the S1 maintain ramified morphology and normal density but up-regulate the mRNA expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Using in vivo two-photon imaging and Cx3cr1CreER;Bdnfflox mice, we show that conditional knockout of BDNF from microglia prevents nerve injury-induced synaptic remodeling and pyramidal neuron hyperactivity in the S1, as well as pain hypersensitivity in mice. Importantly, S1-targeted removal of microglial BDNF largely recapitulates the beneficial effects of systemic BDNF depletion on cortical plasticity and allodynia. Together, these findings reveal a pivotal role of cerebral microglial BDNF in somatosensory cortical plasticity and pain hypersensitivity.

Distinct behavioral traits and associated brain regions in mouse models for obsessive-compulsive disorder.

BACKGROUND: Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a mental disease with heterogeneous behavioral phenotypes, including repetitive behaviors, anxiety, and impairments in cognitive functions. The brain regions related to the behavioral heterogeneity, however, are unknown. METHODS: We systematically examined the behavioral phenotypes of three OCD mouse models induced by pharmacological reagents [RU24969, 8-hydroxy-DPAT hydrobromide (8-OH-DPAT), and 1-(3-chlorophenyl) piperazine hydrochloride-99% (MCPP)], and compared the activated brain regions in each model, respectively. RESULTS: We found that the mouse models presented distinct OCD-like behavioral traits. RU24969-treated mice exhibited repetitive circling, anxiety, and impairments in recognition memory. 8-OH-DPAT-treated mice exhibited excessive spray-induced grooming as well as impairments in recognition memory. MCPP-treated mice showed only excessive self-grooming. To determine the brain regions related to these distinct behavioral traits, we examined c-fos expression to indicate the neuronal activation in the brain. Our results showed that RU24969-treated mice exhibited increased c-fos expression in the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), prelimbic cortex (PrL), infralimbic cortex (IL), nucleus accumbens (NAc), hypothalamus, bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, lateral division, intermediate part (BSTLD), and interstitial nucleus of the posterior limb of the anterior commissure, lateral part (IPACL), whereas in 8-OH-DPAT-treated mice showed increased c-fos expression in the ACC, PrL, IL, OFC, NAc shell, and hypothalamus. By contrast, MCPP did not induce higher c-fos expression in the cortex than control groups. CONCLUSION: Our results indicate that different OCD mouse models exhibited distinct behavioral traits, which may be mediated by the activation of different brain regions.

Repeated exposure to ketamine-xylazine during early development impairs motor learning-dependent dendritic spine plasticity in adulthood.

BACKGROUND: Recent studies in rodents suggest that repeated and prolonged anesthetic exposure at early stages of development leads to cognitive and behavioral impairments later in life. However, the underlying mechanism remains unknown. In this study, we tested whether exposure to general anesthesia during early development will disrupt the maturation of synaptic circuits and compromise learning-related synaptic plasticity later in life. METHODS: Mice received ketamine-xylazine (20/3 mg/kg) anesthesia for one or three times, starting at either early (postnatal day 14 [P14]) or late (P21) stages of development (n = 105). Control mice received saline injections (n = 34). At P30, mice were subjected to rotarod motor training and fear conditioning. Motor learning-induced synaptic remodeling was examined in vivo by repeatedly imaging fluorescently labeled postsynaptic dendritic spines in the primary motor cortex before and after training using two-photon microscopy. RESULTS: Three exposures to ketamine-xylazine anesthesia between P14 and P18 impair the animals' motor learning and learning-dependent dendritic spine plasticity (new spine formation, 8.4 ± 1.3% [mean ± SD] vs. 13.4 ± 1.8%, P = 0.002) without affecting fear memory and cell apoptosis. One exposure at P14 or three exposures between P21 and P25 has no effects on the animals' motor learning or spine plasticity. Finally, enriched motor experience ameliorates anesthesia-induced motor learning impairment and synaptic deficits. CONCLUSIONS: Our study demonstrates that repeated exposures to ketamine-xylazine during early development impair motor learning and learning-dependent dendritic spine plasticity later in life. The reduction in synaptic structural plasticity may underlie anesthesia-induced behavioral impairment.

Sexually dimorphic control of affective state processing and empathic behaviors.

Recognizing the affective states of social counterparts and responding appropriately fosters successful social interactions. However, little is known about how the affective states are expressed and perceived and how they influence social decisions. Here, we show that male and female mice emit distinct olfactory cues after experiencing distress. These cues activate distinct neural circuits in the piriform cortex (PiC) and evoke sexually dimorphic empathic behaviors in observers. Specifically, the PiC → PrL pathway is activated in female observers, inducing a social preference for the distressed counterpart. Conversely, the PiC → MeA pathway is activated in male observers, evoking excessive self-grooming behaviors. These pathways originate from non-overlapping PiC neuron populations with distinct gene expression signatures regulated by transcription factors and sex hormones. Our study unveils how internal states of social counterparts are processed through sexually dimorphic mechanisms at the molecular, cellular, and circuit levels and offers insights into the neural mechanisms underpinning sex differences in higher brain functions.

An insular cortical circuit required for itch sensation and aversion.

Itch encompasses both sensory and emotional dimensions, with the two dimensions reciprocally exacerbating each other. However, whether a shared neural circuit mechanism governs both dimensions remains elusive. Here, we report that the anterior insular cortex (AIC) is activated by both histamine-dependent and -independent itch stimuli. The activation of AIC elicits aversive emotion and exacerbates pruritogen-induced itch sensation and aversion. Mechanistically, AIC excitatory neurons project to the GABAergic neurons in the dorsal bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (dBNST). Manipulating the activity of the AIC → dBNST pathway affects both itch sensation and itch-induced aversion. Our study discovers the shared neural circuit (AIC â†’ dBNST pathway) underlying the itch sensation and aversion, highlights the critical role of the AIC as a central hub for the itch processing, and provides a framework to understand the neural mechanisms underlying the sensation and emotion interaction.

Differences in the neural basis and transcriptomic patterns in acute and persistent pain-related anxiety-like behaviors.

Background: Both acute and persistent pain is associated with anxiety in clinical observations, but whether the underlying neural mechanisms differ is poorly understood. Methods: We used formalin or complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA) to induce acute or persistent pain. Behavioral performance was assessed by the paw withdrawal threshold (PWT), open field (OF), and elevated plus maze (EPM) tests. C-Fos staining was used to identify the activated brain regions. Chemogenetic inhibition was further performed to examine the necessity of brain regions in behaviors. RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) was used to identify the transcriptomic changes. Results: Both acute and persistent pain could lead to anxiety-like behavior in mice. The c-Fos expression indicates that the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) is activated only in acute pain, whereas the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) is activated only in persistent pain. Chemogenetic manipulation reveals that the activation of the BNST excitatory neurons is required for acute pain-induced anxiety-like behaviors. In contrast, the activation of the prelimbic mPFC excitatory neurons is essential for persistent pain-induced anxiety-like behaviors. RNA-seq reveals that acute and persistent pain induces differential gene expression changes and protein-protein interaction networks in the BNST and prelimbic mPFC. The genes relevant to neuronal functions might underline the differential activation of the BNST and prelimbic mPFC in different pain models, and be involved in acute and persistent pain-related anxiety-like behaviors. Conclusion: Distinct brain regions and gene expression patterns are involved in acute and persistent pain-related anxiety-like behaviors.

Learning-dependent dendritic spine plasticity is impaired in spontaneous autoimmune encephalomyelitis.

Cognitive impairment is often observed in multiple sclerosis and its animal models, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Using mice with immunization-induced EAE, we have previously shown that the stability of cortical synapses is markedly decreased before the clinical onset of EAE. In this study, we examined learning-dependent structural synaptic plasticity in a spontaneous EAE model. Transgenic mice expressing myelin basic protein-specific T cell receptor genes develop EAE spontaneously at around 8 weeks of age. Using in vivo two-photon microscopy, we found that the elimination and formation rates of postsynaptic dendritic spines in somatosensory and motor cortices increased weeks before detectable signs of EAE and remained to be high during the disease onset. Despite the elevated basal spine turnover, motor learning-induced spine formation was reduced in presymptomatic EAE mice, in line with their impaired ability to retain learned motor skills. Additionally, we found a substantial elevation of IFN-γ mRNA in the brain of 4-week-old presymptomatic mice, and treatment of anti-IFN-γ antibody reduced dendritic spine elimination in the cortex. Together, these findings reveal synaptic instability and failure to form new synapses after learning as early brain pathology of EAE, which may contribute to cognitive and behavioral deficits seen in autoimmune diseases.

Enriched Environment Prevents Surgery-Induced Persistent Neural Inhibition and Cognitive Dysfunction.

Perioperative neurocognitive disorders (PND) encompass short-term delirium and long-term cognitive dysfunction. Aging increases the susceptibility to PND, yet the neural mechanism is not known. In this study, we monitored the dynamic changes of neuronal activity in the prelimbic cortex before and after surgery. We found that anesthesia combined with surgery, but not anesthesia alone, induced a prolonged decrease in neuronal activity during the post-operation period in the aged mice, but not in the adult mice. The prolonged decrease in neuronal activity was accompanied by surgery-induced microglial activation and proinflammatory cytokines expression. Importantly, we found that the enriched environment (EE) completely prevented both the prolonged neural inhibition and neuroinflammation, and improved cognitive function in the aged mice. These results indicate that the prolonged neural inhibition correlated to PND and that EE before the surgery could effectively alleviate the surgery- induced cognitive dysfunction.

Learning-Dependent Dendritic Spine Plasticity Is Reduced in the Aged Mouse Cortex.

Aging is accompanied by a progressive decrease in learning and memory function. Synaptic loss, one of the hallmarks of normal aging, likely plays an important role in age-related cognitive decline. But little is known about the impact of advanced age on synaptic plasticity and neuronal function in vivo. In this study, we examined the structural dynamics of postsynaptic dendritic spines as well as calcium activity of layer 5 pyramidal neurons in the cerebral cortex of young and old mice. Using transcranial two-photon microscopy, we found that in both sensory and motor cortices, the elimination rates of dendritic spines were comparable between young (3-5 months) and mature adults (8-10 months), but seemed higher in old mice (>20 months), contributing to a reduction of total spine number in the old brain. During the process of motor learning, old mice compared to young mice had fewer new spines formed in the primary motor cortex. Motor training-evoked somatic calcium activity in layer 5 pyramidal neurons of the motor cortex was also lower in old than young mice, which was associated with the decline of motor learning ability during aging. Together, these results demonstrate the effects of aging on learning-dependent synapse remodeling and neuronal activity in the living cortex and suggest that synaptic deficits may contribute to age-related learning impairment.

Reduced Dendritic Spines in the Visual Cortex Contralateral to the Optic Nerve Crush Eye in Adult Mice.

Purpose: To determine alteration of dendritic spines and associated changes in the primary visual cortex (V1 region) related to unilateral optic nerve crush (ONC) in adult mice. Methods: Adult unilateral ONC mice were established. Retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL) thickness was measured by spectral-domain optical coherence tomography. Visual function was estimated by flash visual evoked potentials (FVEPs). Dendritic spines were observed in the V1 region contralateral to the ONC eye by two-photon imaging in vivo. The neurons, reactive astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and activated microglia were assessed by NeuN, glial fibrillary acidic protein, CNPase, and CD68 in immunohistochemistry, respectively. Tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB) and the markers in TrkB trafficking were estimated using western blotting and co-immunoprecipitation. Transmission electron microscopy and western blotting were used to evaluate autophagy. Results: The amplitude and latency of FVEPs were decreased and delayed at 3 days, 1 week, 2 weeks, and 4 weeks after ONC, and RNFL thickness was decreased at 2 and 4 weeks after ONC. Dendritic spines were reduced in the V1 region contralateral to the ONC eye at 2, 3, and 4 weeks after ONC, with an unchanged number of neurons. Reactive astrocyte staining was increased at 2 and 4 weeks after ONC, but oligodendrocyte and activated microglia staining remained unchanged. TrkB was reduced with changes in the major trafficking proteins, and enhanced autophagy was observed in the V1 region contralateral to the ONC eye. Conclusions: Dendritic spines were reduced in the V1 region contralateral to the ONC eye in adult mice. Reactive astrocytes and decreased TrkB may be associated with the reduced dendritic spines.

ATP-sensitive potassium channels control glioma cells proliferation by regulating ERK activity.

Ion channels are found in a variety of cancer cells and necessary for cell cycle and cell proliferation. The roles of K(+) channels in the process are, however, poorly understood. In the present study, we report that adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-sensitive potassium channel activity plays a critical role in the proliferation of glioma cells. The expression of K(ATP) channels in glioma tissues was greatly increased than that in normal tissues. Treatment of glioma cells with tolbutamide, K(ATP) channels inhibitor, suppressed the proliferation of glioma cells and blocked glioma cell cycle in G(0)/G(1) phase. Similarly, downregulation of K(ATP) channels by small interfering RNA (siRNA) inhibited glioma cell proliferation. On the other hand, K(ATP) channels agonist diazoxide and overexpression of K(ATP) channels promoted the proliferation of glioma cells. Moreover, inhibiting K(ATP) channels slowed the formation of tumor in nude mice generated by injection of glioma cells. Whereas activating K(ATP) channels promoted development of tumor in vivo. The effect of K(ATP) channels activity on glioma cells proliferation is mediated by extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) activation. We found that activating K(ATP) channel triggered ERK activation and inhibiting K(ATP) channel depressed ERK activation. U-0126, the mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MAPK kinase) inhibitors blocked ERK activation and cell proliferation induced by diazoxide. Furthermore, constitutively activated MEK plasmids transfection reversed the inhibitory effects of tolbutamide on glioma proliferation, lending further support for a role of ERK in mediating this process. Our results suggest that K(ATP) channels control glioma cell proliferation via regulating ERK pathway. We concluded that K(ATP) channels are important in pathological cell proliferation and open a promising pathway for novel targeted therapies.

Neuropathic Pain Causes Pyramidal Neuronal Hyperactivity in the Anterior Cingulate Cortex.

The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) is thought to be important for acute pain perception as well as the development of chronic pain after peripheral nerve injury. Nevertheless, how ACC neurons respond to sensory stimulation under chronic pain states is not well understood. Here, we used an in vivo two-photon imaging technique to monitor the activity of individual neurons in the ACC of awake, head restrained mice. Calcium imaging in the dorsal ACC revealed robust somatic activity in layer 5 (L5) pyramidal neurons in response to peripheral noxious stimuli, and the degree of evoked activity was correlated with the intensity of noxious stimulation. Furthermore, the activation of ACC neurons occurred bilaterally upon noxious stimulation to either contralateral or ipsilateral hind paws. Notably, with nerve injury-induced neuropathic pain in one limb, L5 pyramidal neurons in both sides of the ACC showed enhanced activity in the absence or presence of pain stimuli. These results reveal hyperactivity of L5 pyramidal neurons in the bilateral ACC during the development of neuropathic pain.

Long-lasting behavioral effects in neonatal mice with multiple exposures to ketamine-xylazine anesthesia.

Anesthetic agents are often administered in the neonatal period, a time of rapid brain development and synaptogenesis. Mounting evidence suggests that anesthetics can disrupt neurocognitive development, particularly in cases of multiple or prolonged anesthetic exposure. Previous studies have shown that administering multiple doses of ketamine-xylazine (KX) anesthesia to neonatal mice can induce long-term changes to synaptic plasticity in the cortex, but the effect on neurocognitive function remains unclear. In this study, we exposed neonatal mice to single dose and multiple doses of KX anesthesia in the neonatal period (postnatal days 7, 9, 11), and conducted a series of behavioral tests in young adulthood (1month of age). Mice receiving multiple doses of KX anesthesia showed deficits in novel object recognition, sociability, preference for social novelty and contextual fear response, but no effect on auditory-cued fear response. Single dose of KX anesthesia had no effect on these behaviors except for contextual fear response. We also observed that multiple exposures to KX anesthesia were associated with decreased CaMKII phosphorylation, which is known to play a role in synapse development and long-term potentiation, likely contributing to learning impairment.

Composition and Nutrient Value Proposition of Brewers Spent Grain.

Brewer's spent grain (BSG), a major brewing industry byproduct, is generated in large quantities annually. This review summarizes research into the composition and preservation of BSG, different extraction techniques for BSG proteins and phenolic acids, and the bioactivities of these phenolic components. Moreover, this article also highlights BSG integration into foodstuff for human consumption and animal feed supplements. BSG is considered a rich source of fiber, protein, and phenolic compounds. The phenolic acids present in BSG are hydroxycinnamic acids (ferulic, p-coumaric, and caffeic acids), which have many biofunctions, such as antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, antiatherogenic, and antiinflammatory activities. Previously, attempts have been made to integrate BSG into human food, such as ready-to-eat snacks, cookies and bread, to increase fiber and protein contents. The addition of BSG to animal feed leads to increased milk yields, higher fat contents in milk, and is a good source of essential amino acids. Therefore, many studies have concluded that integrating the biofunctional compounds in BSG into human food and animal feed has various health benefits.

Evaluation of the Cellular and Animal Models for the Study of Antioxidant Activity: A Review.

The mechanisms of antioxidant activities of phytochemicals are highly complex, so various methods to study them have been developed. However, the diverse available methods show inconsistent results. Different stressors, cell models, and animal models have been used to evaluate the antioxidant properties of phytochemicals. However, the literature still lacks a summary of the effects of different stressors, cell models, and animal models on the evaluation of antioxidant activities. Therefore, the mechanisms of action of different oxidative stimuli and the characteristics of the available cell models and animal models are summarized in this review.

Activation of ATP-sensitive K channels protects hippocampal CA1 neurons from hypoxia by suppressing p53 expression.

Oxygen-sensing and responses to changes in oxygen concentration is a fundamental property of cellular physiology. In the central nervous system (CNS), hippocampal CA1 neurons are known to be extremely vulnerable to low oxygen concentrations or anoxia. Understanding the mechanisms governing tolerance to oxygen depletion is vital for developing strategies to protect the brain from hypoxic-ischemic insult. Our current study demonstrates the protective mechanism of KATP channels on hippocampal CA1 neurons subjected to hypoxic or anoxic conditions. Specifically, we show that CA1 neurons undergo apoptosis when depleted of oxygen for 12 or 24 h. A KATP channels agonist diazoxide inhibits the observed apoptosis. The inhibition of apoptosis is mediated through diazoxide's ability to reduce p53 expression. On the other hand, tolbutamide, a KATP channels antagonist which blocks the cellular sulphonylureas receptor, significantly increases p53 expression and apoptosis under hypoxic/anoxic conditions. Trichostatin (TSA), a p53 inhibitor, can block the effects of tolbutamide, lending further support for a role of p53 in mediating this process. These studies demonstrate that KATP channels act as an upstream antagonist of p53 in hippocampal CA1 neurons, and suggests their protective role in cerebral hypoxia.

Post-anesthesia AMPA receptor potentiation prevents anesthesia-induced learning and synaptic deficits.

Accumulating evidence has shown that repeated exposure to general anesthesia during critical stages of brain development results in long-lasting behavioral deficits later in life. To date, there has been no effective treatment to mitigate the neurotoxic effects of anesthesia on brain development. By performing calcium imaging in the mouse motor cortex, we show that ketamine anesthesia causes a marked and prolonged reduction in neuronal activity during the period of post-anesthesia recovery. Administration of the AMPAkine drug CX546 [1-(1,4-benzodioxan-6-ylcarbonyl)piperidine] to potentiate AMPA (α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid) receptor activity during emergence from anesthesia in mice enhances neuronal activity and prevents long-term motor learning deficits induced by repeated neonatal anesthesia. In addition, we show that CX546 administration also ameliorates various synaptic deficits induced by anesthesia, including reductions in synaptic expression of NMDA (N-methyl-d-aspartate) and AMPA receptor subunits, motor training-evoked neuronal activity, and dendritic spine remodeling associated with motor learning. Together, our results indicate that pharmacologically enhancing neuronal activity during the post-anesthesia recovery period could effectively reduce the adverse effects of early-life anesthesia.