Male and female contributions to diversity among birdwing butterfly images.

Machine learning (ML) newly enables tests for higher inter-species diversity in visible phenotype (disparity) among males versus females, predictions made from Darwinian sexual selection versus Wallacean natural selection, respectively. Here, we use ML to quantify variation across a sample of > 16,000 dorsal and ventral photographs of the sexually dimorphic birdwing butterflies (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae). Validation of image embedding distances, learnt by a triplet-trained, deep convolutional neural network, shows ML can be used for automated reconstruction of phenotypic evolution achieving measures of phylogenetic congruence to genetic species trees within a range sampled among genetic trees themselves. Quantification of sexual disparity difference (male versus female embedding distance), shows sexually and phylogenetically variable inter-species disparity. Ornithoptera exemplify high embedded male image disparity, diversification of selective optima in fitted multi-peak OU models and accelerated divergence, with cases of extreme divergence in allopatry and sympatry. However, genus Troides shows inverted patterns, including comparatively static male embedded phenotype, and higher female than male disparity - though within an inferred selective regime common to these females. Birdwing shapes and colour patterns that are most phenotypically distinctive in ML similarity are generally those of males. However, either sex can contribute majoritively to observed phenotypic diversity among species.

DNA barcodes from over-a-century-old type specimens shed light on the taxonomy of a group of rare butterflies (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae: Calinaginae).

We analyzed COI barcode sequences from 138 over-a-century old specimens of Calinaga including 36 name-bearing type specimens stored at the Natural History Museum London. These new data, combined with previously available RPS5 sequences, divide the Calinaga samples into four well-supported mitochondrial lineages that together with a novel wing-pattern analysis, support the recognition of six species (lhatso, buddha, brahma, aborica, formosana and davidis), with all other names subsumed either as subspecies or synonyms. One new taxon is described, Calinaga aborica naima Vane-Wright, ssp. n.