Exercise training adaptations in liver glycogen and glycerolipids require hepatic AMP-activated protein kinase in mice.

Regular exercise elicits adaptations in glucose and lipid metabolism that allow the body to meet energy demands of subsequent exercise bouts more effectively and mitigate metabolic diseases including fatty liver. Energy discharged during the acute exercise bouts that comprise exercise training may be a catalyst for liver adaptations. During acute exercise, liver glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis are accelerated to supply glucose to working muscle. Lower liver energy state imposed by gluconeogenesis and related pathways activates AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), which conserves ATP partly by promoting lipid oxidation. This study tested the hypothesis that AMPK is necessary for liver glucose and lipid adaptations to training. Liver-specific AMPKα1α2 knockout (AMPKα1α2fl/fl+AlbCre) mice and littermate controls (AMPKα1α2fl/fl) completed sedentary and exercise training protocols. Liver nutrient fluxes were quantified at rest or during acute exercise following training. Liver metabolites and molecular regulators of metabolism were assessed. Training increased liver glycogen in AMPKα1α2fl/fl mice, but not in AMPKα1α2fl/fl+AlbCre mice. The inability to increase glycogen led to lower glycogenolysis, glucose production, and circulating glucose during acute exercise in trained AMPKα1α2fl/fl+AlbCre mice. Deletion of AMPKα1α2 attenuated training-induced declines in liver diacylglycerides. In particular, training lowered the concentration of unsaturated and elongated fatty acids comprising diacylglycerides in AMPKα1α2fl/fl mice, but not in AMPKα1α2fl/fl+AlbCre mice. Training increased liver triacylglycerides and the desaturation and elongation of fatty acids in triacylglycerides of AMPKα1α2fl/fl+AlbCre mice. These lipid responses were independent of differences in tricarboxylic acid cycle fluxes. In conclusion, AMPK is required for liver training adaptations that are critical to glucose and lipid metabolism.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This study shows that the energy sensor and transducer, AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), is necessary for an exercise training-induced: 1) increase in liver glycogen that is necessary for accelerated glycogenolysis during exercise, 2) decrease in liver glycerolipids independent of tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle flux, and 3) decline in the desaturation and elongation of fatty acids comprising liver diacylglycerides. The mechanisms defined in these studies have implications for use of regular exercise or AMPK-activators in patients with fatty liver.

Disruption of hepatic mitochondrial pyruvate and amino acid metabolism impairs gluconeogenesis and endurance exercise capacity in mice.

Exercise robustly increases the glucose demands of skeletal muscle. This demand is met by not only muscle glycogenolysis but also accelerated liver glucose production from hepatic glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis to fuel mechanical work and prevent hypoglycemia during exercise. Hepatic gluconeogenesis during exercise is dependent on highly coordinated responses within and between muscle and liver. Specifically, exercise increases the rate at which gluconeogenic precursors such as pyruvate/lactate or amino acids are delivered from muscle to the liver, extracted by the liver, and channeled into glucose. Herein, we examined the effects of interrupting hepatic gluconeogenic efficiency and capacity on exercise performance by deleting mitochondrial pyruvate carrier 2 (MPC2) and/or alanine transaminase 2 (ALT2) in the liver of mice. We found that deletion of MPC2 or ALT2 alone did not significantly affect time to exhaustion or postexercise glucose concentrations in treadmill exercise tests, but mice lacking both MPC2 and ALT2 in hepatocytes (double knockout, DKO) reached exhaustion faster and exhibited lower circulating glucose during and after exercise. Use of 2H/1³C metabolic flux analyses demonstrated that DKO mice exhibited lower endogenous glucose production owing to decreased glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis at rest and during exercise. Decreased gluconeogenesis was accompanied by lower anaplerotic, cataplerotic, and TCA cycle fluxes. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that the transition of the liver to the gluconeogenic mode is critical for preventing hypoglycemia and sustaining performance during exercise. The results also illustrate the need for interorgan cross talk during exercise as described by the Cahill and Cori cycles.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Martino and colleagues examined the effects of inhibiting hepatic gluconeogenesis on exercise performance and systemic metabolism during treadmill exercise in mice. Combined inhibition of gluconeogenesis from lactate/pyruvate and alanine impaired exercise endurance and led to hypoglycemia during and after exercise. In contrast, suppressing either pyruvate-mediated or alanine-mediated gluconeogenesis alone had no effect on these parameters. These findings provide new insight into the molecular nodes that coordinate the metabolic responses of muscle and liver during exercise.

Loss of hepatic phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase 1 dysregulates metabolic responses to acute exercise but enhances adaptations to exercise training in mice.

Acute exercise increases liver gluconeogenesis to supply glucose to working muscles. Concurrently, elevated liver lipid breakdown fuels the high energetic cost of gluconeogenesis. This functional coupling between liver gluconeogenesis and lipid oxidation has been proposed to underlie the ability of regular exercise to enhance liver mitochondrial oxidative metabolism and decrease liver steatosis in individuals with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Herein we tested whether repeated bouts of increased hepatic gluconeogenesis are necessary for exercise training to lower liver lipids. Experiments used diet-induced obese mice lacking hepatic phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase 1 (KO) to inhibit gluconeogenesis and wild-type (WT) littermates. 2H/13C metabolic flux analysis quantified glucose and mitochondrial oxidative fluxes in untrained mice at rest and during acute exercise. Circulating and tissue metabolite levels were determined during sedentary conditions, acute exercise, and refeeding postexercise. Mice also underwent 6 wk of treadmill running protocols to define hepatic and extrahepatic adaptations to exercise training. Untrained KO mice were unable to maintain euglycemia during acute exercise resulting from an inability to increase gluconeogenesis. Liver triacylglycerides were elevated after acute exercise and circulating ß-hydroxybutyrate was higher during postexercise refeeding in untrained KO mice. In contrast, exercise training prevented liver triacylglyceride accumulation in KO mice. This was accompanied by pronounced increases in indices of skeletal muscle mitochondrial oxidative metabolism in KO mice. Together, these results show that hepatic gluconeogenesis is dispensable for exercise training to reduce liver lipids. This may be due to responses in ketone body metabolism and/or metabolic adaptations in skeletal muscle to exercise.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Exercise training reduces hepatic steatosis partly through enhanced hepatic terminal oxidation. During acute exercise, hepatic gluconeogenesis is elevated to match the heightened rate of muscle glucose uptake and maintain glucose homeostasis. It has been postulated that the hepatic energetic stress induced by elevating gluconeogenesis during acute exercise is a key stimulus underlying the beneficial metabolic responses to exercise training. This study shows that hepatic gluconeogenesis is not necessary for exercise training to lower liver lipids.

Artifactual FA dimers mimic FAHFA signals in untargeted metabolomics pipelines.

FA esters of hydroxy FAs (FAHFAs) are lipokines with extensive structural and regional isomeric diversity that impact multiple physiological functions, including insulin sensitivity and glucose homeostasis. Because of their low molar abundance, FAHFAs are typically quantified using highly sensitive LC-MS/MS methods. Numerous relevant MS databases house in silico-spectra that allow identification and speciation of FAHFAs. These provisional chemical feature assignments provide a useful starting point but could lead to misidentification. To address this possibility, we analyzed human serum with a commonly applied high-resolution LC-MS untargeted metabolomics platform. We found that many chemical features are putatively assigned to the FAHFA lipid class based on exact mass and fragmentation patterns matching spectral databases. Careful validation using authentic standards revealed that many investigated signals provisionally assigned as FAHFAs are in fact FA dimers formed in the LC-MS pipeline. These isobaric FA dimers differ structurally only by the presence of an olefinic bond. Furthermore, stable isotope-labeled oleic acid spiked into human serum at subphysiological concentrations showed concentration-dependent formation of a diverse repertoire of FA dimers that analytically mimicked FAHFAs. Conversely, validated FAHFA species did not form spontaneously in the LC-MS pipeline. Together, these findings underscore that FAHFAs are endogenous lipid species.  However, nonbiological FA dimers forming in the setting of high concentrations of FFAs can be misidentified as FAHFAs. Based on these results, we assembled a FA dimer database to identify nonbiological FA dimers in untargeted metabolomics datasets.

Glycine N-methyltransferase deletion in mice diverts carbon flux from gluconeogenesis to pathways that utilize excess methionine cycle intermediates.

Glycine N-methyltransferase (GNMT) is the most abundant liver methyltransferase regulating the availability of the biological methyl donor, S-adenosylmethionine (SAM). Moreover, GNMT has been identified to be down-regulated in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Despite its role in regulating SAM levels and association of its down-regulation with liver tumorigenesis, the impact of reduced GNMT on metabolic reprogramming before the manifestation of HCC has not been investigated in detail. Herein, we used 2H/13C metabolic flux analysis in conscious, unrestrained mice to test the hypothesis that the absence of GNMT causes metabolic reprogramming. GNMT-null (KO) mice displayed a reduction in blood glucose that was associated with a decline in both hepatic glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis. The reduced gluconeogenesis was due to a decrease in liver gluconeogenic precursors, citric acid cycle fluxes, and anaplerosis and cataplerosis. A concurrent elevation in both hepatic SAM and metabolites of SAM utilization pathways was observed in the KO mice. Specifically, the increase in metabolites of SAM utilization pathways indicated that hepatic polyamine synthesis and catabolism, transsulfuration, and de novo lipogenesis pathways were increased in the KO mice. Of note, these pathways utilize substrates that could otherwise be used for gluconeogenesis. Also, this metabolic reprogramming occurs before the well-documented appearance of HCC in GNMT-null mice. Together, these results indicate that GNMT deletion promotes a metabolic shift whereby nutrients are channeled away from glucose formation toward pathways that utilize the elevated SAM.

Energy metabolism couples hepatocyte integrin-linked kinase to liver glucoregulation and postabsorptive responses of mice in an age-dependent manner.

Integrin-linked kinase (ILK) is a critical intracellular signaling node for integrin receptors. Its role in liver development is complex, as ILK deletion at E10.5 (before hepatocyte differentiation) results in biochemical and morphological differences that resolve as mice age. Nevertheless, mice with ILK depleted specifically in hepatocytes are protected from the hepatic insulin resistance during obesity. Despite the potential importance of hepatocyte ILK to metabolic health, it is unknown how ILK controls hepatic metabolism or glucoregulation. The present study tested the role of ILK in hepatic metabolism and glucoregulation by deleting it specifically in hepatocytes, using a cre-lox system that begins expression at E15.5 (after initiation of hepatocyte differentiation). These mice develop the most severe morphological and glucoregulatory abnormalities at 6 wk, but these gradually resolve with age. After identifying when the deletion of ILK caused a severe metabolic phenotype, in depth studies were performed at this time point to define the metabolic programs that coordinate control of glucoregulation that are regulated by ILK. We show that 6-wk-old ILK-deficient mice have higher glucose tolerance and decreased net glycogen synthesis. Additionally, ILK was shown to be necessary for transcription of mitochondrial-related genes, oxidative metabolism, and maintenance of cellular energy status. Thus, ILK is required for maintaining hepatic transcriptional and metabolic programs that sustain oxidative metabolism, which are required for hepatic maintenance of glucose homeostasis.

Perfusion controls muscle glucose uptake by altering the rate of glucose dispersion in vivo.

These studies test, using intravital microscopy (IVM), the hypotheses that perfusion effects on insulin-stimulated muscle glucose uptake (MGU) are 1) capillary recruitment independent and 2) mediated through the dispersion of glucose rather than insulin. For experiment 1, capillary perfusion was visualized before and after intravenous insulin. No capillary recruitment was observed. For experiment 2, mice were treated with vasoactive compounds (sodium nitroprusside, hyaluronidase, and lipopolysaccharide), and dispersion of fluorophores approximating insulin size (10-kDa dextran) and glucose (2-NBDG) was measured using IVM. Subsequently, insulin and 2[14C]deoxyglucose were injected and muscle phospho-2[14C]deoxyglucose (2[C14]DG) accumulation was used as an index of MGU. Flow velocity and 2-NBDG dispersion, but not perfused surface area or 10-kDa dextran dispersion, predicted phospho-2[14C]DG accumulation. For experiment 3, microspheres of the same size and number as are used for contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEU) studies of capillary recruitment were visualized using IVM. Due to their low concentration, microspheres were present in only a small fraction of blood-perfused capillaries. Microsphere-perfused blood volume correlated to flow velocity. These findings suggest that 1) flow velocity rather than capillary recruitment controls microvascular contributions to MGU, 2) glucose dispersion is more predictive of MGU than dispersion of insulin-sized molecules, and 3) CEU measures regional flow velocity rather than capillary recruitment.

Loss of hepatic AMP-activated protein kinase impedes the rate of glycogenolysis but not gluconeogenic fluxes in exercising mice.

Pathologies including diabetes and conditions such as exercise place an unusual demand on liver energy metabolism, and this demand induces a state of energy discharge. Hepatic AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) has been proposed to inhibit anabolic processes such as gluconeogenesis in response to cellular energy stress. However, both AMPK activation and glucose release from the liver are increased during exercise. Here, we sought to test the role of hepatic AMPK in the regulation of in vivo glucose-producing and citric acid cycle-related fluxes during an acute bout of muscular work. We used 2H/13C metabolic flux analysis to quantify intermediary metabolism fluxes in both sedentary and treadmill-running mice. Additionally, liver-specific AMPK α1 and α2 subunit KO and WT mice were utilized. Exercise caused an increase in endogenous glucose production, glycogenolysis, and gluconeogenesis from phosphoenolpyruvate. Citric acid cycle fluxes, pyruvate cycling, anaplerosis, and cataplerosis were also elevated during this exercise. Sedentary nutrient fluxes in the postabsorptive state were comparable for the WT and KO mice. However, the increment in the endogenous rate of glucose appearance during exercise was blunted in the KO mice because of a diminished glycogenolytic flux. This lower rate of glycogenolysis was associated with lower hepatic glycogen content before the onset of exercise and prompted a reduction in arterial glucose during exercise. These results indicate that liver AMPKα1α2 is required for maintaining glucose homeostasis during an acute bout of exercise.

5-Aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide-1-ß-D-ribofuranoside (AICAR) effect on glucose production, but not energy metabolism, is independent of hepatic AMPK in vivo.

Metabolic stress, as well as several antidiabetic agents, increases hepatic nucleotide monophosphate (NMP) levels, activates AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), and suppresses glucose production. We tested the necessity of hepatic AMPK for the in vivo effects of an acute elevation in NMP on metabolism. 5-Aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide 1-ß-D-ribofuranoside (AICAR; 8 mg·kg(-1)·min(-1))-euglycemic clamps were performed to elicit an increase in NMP in wild type (α1α2(lox/lox)) and liver-specific AMPK knock-out mice (α1α2(lox/lox) + Albcre) in the presence of fixed glucose. Glucose kinetics were equivalent in 5-h fasted α1α2(lox/lox) and α1α2(lox/lox) + Albcre mice. AMPK was not required for AICAR-mediated suppression of glucose production and increased glucose disappearance. These results demonstrate that AMPK is unnecessary for normal 5-h fasting glucose kinetics and AICAR-mediated inhibition of glucose production. Moreover, plasma fatty acids and triglycerides also decreased independently of hepatic AMPK during AICAR administration. Although the glucoregulatory effects of AICAR were shown to be independent of AMPK, these studies provide in vivo support for the AMPK energy sensor paradigm. AICAR reduced hepatic energy charge by ∼20% in α1α2(lox/lox), which was exacerbated by ∼2-fold in α1α2(lox/lox) + Albcre. This corresponded to a ∼6-fold rise in AMP/ATP in α1α2(lox/lox) + Albcre. Consistent with the effects on adenine nucleotides, maximal mitochondrial respiration was ∼30% lower in α1α2(lox/lox) + Albcre than α1α2(lox/lox) livers. Mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation efficiency was reduced by 25%. In summary, these results demonstrate that the NMP capacity to inhibit glucose production in vivo is independent of liver AMPK. In contrast, AMPK promotes mitochondrial function and protects against a more precipitous fall in ATP during AICAR administration.

Mass spectrometry-based microassay of (2)H and (13)C plasma glucose labeling to quantify liver metabolic fluxes in vivo.

Mouse models designed to examine hepatic metabolism are critical to diabetes and obesity research. Thus, a microscale method to quantitatively assess hepatic glucose and intermediary metabolism in conscious, unrestrained mice was developed. [(13)C3]propionate, [(2)H2]water, and [6,6-(2)H2]glucose isotopes were delivered intravenously in short- (9 h) and long-term-fasted (19 h) C57BL/6J mice. GC-MS and mass isotopomer distribution (MID) analysis were performed on three 40-µl arterial plasma glucose samples obtained during the euglycemic isotopic steady state. Model-based regression of hepatic glucose and citric acid cycle (CAC)-related fluxes was performed using a comprehensive isotopomer model to track carbon and hydrogen atom transitions through the network and thereby simulate the MIDs of measured fragment ions. Glucose-6-phosphate production from glycogen diminished, and endogenous glucose production was exclusively gluconeogenic with prolonged fasting. Gluconeogenic flux from phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) remained stable, whereas that from glycerol modestly increased from short- to long-term fasting. CAC flux [i.e., citrate synthase (VCS)] was reduced with long-term fasting. Interestingly, anaplerosis and cataplerosis increased with fast duration; accordingly, pyruvate carboxylation and the conversion of oxaloacetate to PEP were severalfold higher than VCS in long-term fasted mice. This method utilizes state-of-the-art in vivo methodology and comprehensive isotopomer modeling to quantify hepatic glucose and intermediary fluxes during physiological stress in mice. The small plasma requirements permit serial sampling without stress and the affirmation of steady-state glucose kinetics. Furthermore, the approach can accommodate a broad range of modeling assumptions, isotope tracers, and measurement inputs without the need to introduce ad hoc mathematical approximations.

Diminishing impairments in glucose uptake, mitochondrial content, and ADP-stimulated oxygen flux by mesenchymal stem cell therapy in the infarcted heart.

A constant provision of ATP is of necessity for cardiac contraction. As the heart progresses toward failure following a myocardial infarction (MI), it undergoes metabolic alterations that have the potential to compromise the ability to meet energetic demands. This study evaluated the efficacy of mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) transplantation into the infarcted heart to minimize impairments in the metabolic processes that contribute to energy provision. Seven and twenty-eight days following the MI and MSC transplantation, MSC administration minimized cardiac systolic dysfunction. Hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamps, coupled with 2-[(14)C]deoxyglucose administration, were employed to assess systemic insulin sensitivity and tissue-specific, insulin-mediated glucose uptake 36 days following the MI in the conscious, unrestrained, C57BL/6 mouse. The improved systolic performance in MSC-treated mice was associated with a preservation of in vivo insulin-stimulated cardiac glucose uptake. Conserved glucose uptake in the heart was linked to the ability of the MSC treatment to diminish the decline in insulin signaling as assessed by Akt phosphorylation. The MSC treatment also sustained mitochondrial content, ADP-stimulated oxygen flux, and mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation efficiency in the heart. Maintenance of mitochondrial function and density was accompanied by preserved peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator-1α, a master regulator of mitochondrial biogenesis. These studies provide insight into mechanisms of action that lead to an enhanced energetic state in the infarcted heart following MSC transplantation that may assist in energy provision and dampen cardiac dysfunction.

Myostatin inhibits proliferation and insulin-stimulated glucose uptake in mouse liver cells.

Although myostatin functions primarily as a negative regulator of skeletal muscle growth and development, accumulating biological and epidemiological evidence indicates an important contributing role in liver disease. In this study, we demonstrate that myostatin suppresses the proliferation of mouse Hepa-1c1c7 murine-derived liver cells (50%; p < 0.001) in part by reducing the expression of the cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases that elicit G1-S phase transition of the cell cycle (p < 0.001). Furthermore, real-time PCR-based quantification of the long noncoding RNA metastasis associated lung adenocarcinoma transcript 1 (Malat1), recently identified as a myostatin-responsive transcript in skeletal muscle, revealed a significant downregulation (25% and 50%, respectively; p < 0.05) in the livers of myostatin-treated mice and liver cells. The importance of Malat1 in liver cell proliferation was confirmed via arrested liver cell proliferation (p < 0.05) in response to partial Malat1 siRNA-mediated knockdown. Myostatin also significantly blunted insulin-stimulated glucose uptake and Akt phosphorylation in liver cells while increasing the phosphorylation of myristoylated alanine-rich C-kinase substrate (MARCKS), a protein that is essential for cancer cell proliferation and insulin-stimulated glucose transport. Together, these findings reveal a plausible mechanism by which circulating myostatin contributes to the diminished regenerative capacity of the liver and diseases characterized by liver insulin resistance.

Approach to assessing determinants of glucose homeostasis in the conscious mouse.

Obesity and type 2 diabetes lessen the quality of life of those afflicted and place considerable burden on the healthcare system. Furthermore, the detrimental impact of these pathologies is expected to persist or even worsen. Diabetes is characterized by impaired insulin action and glucose homeostasis. This has led to a rapid increase in the number of mouse models of metabolic disease being used in the basic sciences to assist in facilitating a greater understanding of the metabolic dysregulation associated with obesity and diabetes, the identification of therapeutic targets, and the discovery of effective treatments. This review briefly describes the most frequently utilized models of metabolic disease. A presentation of standard methods and technologies on the horizon for assessing metabolic phenotypes in mice, with particular emphasis on glucose handling and energy balance, is provided. The article also addresses issues related to study design, selection and execution of metabolic tests of glucose metabolism, the presentation of data, and interpretation of results.

Gender-based heterogeneity of FAHFAs in trained runners.

Fatty acid esters of hydroxy fatty acid (FAHFA) are anti-diabetic and anti-inflammatory lipokines. Recently FAHFAs were also found to predict cardiorespiratory fitness in a cross-sectional study of recreationally trained runners. Here we report the influences of body composition and gender on static FAHFA abundances in circulation. We compared the association between circulating FAHFA concentrations and body composition, determined by dual x-ray absorptiometry, in female recreational runners who were lean (BMI < 25 kg/m2, n = 6), to those who were overweight (BMI ≥ 25 kg/m2, n = 7). To characterize the effect of gender we also compared circulating FAHFAs in lean male recreational runners (n = 8) to recreationally trained lean female (n = 6) runner group. Circulating FAHFAs were increased in females in a manner that was modulated by specific adipose depot sizes, blood glucose, and lean body mass. As expected, circulating FAHFAs were diminished in the overweight group, but strikingly, within the lean cohort, increases in circulating FAHFAs were promoted by increased fat mass, relative to lean mass, while the overweight group showed a significantly attenuated relationship. These studies suggest multimodal regulation of circulating FAHFAs and raise hypotheses to test endogenous FAHFA dynamic sources and sinks in health and disease, which will be essential for therapeutic target development. Baseline circulating FAHFA concentrations could signal sub-clinical metabolic dysfunction in metabolically healthy obesity.

Enhanced cardiac protein glycosylation (O-GlcNAc) of selected mitochondrial proteins in rats artificially selected for low running capacity.

O-linked ß-N-acetyl glucosamine (O-GlcNAc) is a posttranslational modification consisting of a single N-acetylglucosamine moiety attached by an O-ß-glycosidic linkage to serine and threonine residues of both nuclear and cytosolic proteins. Analogous to phosphorylation, the modification is reversible and dynamic, changing in response to stress, nutrients, hormones, and exercise. Aims of this study were to examine differences in O-GlcNAc protein modification in the cardiac tissue of rats artificially selected for low (LCR) or high (HCR) running capacity. Hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamps in conscious animals assessed insulin sensitivity while 2-[(14)C] deoxyglucose tracked both whole body and tissue-specific glucose disposal. Immunoblots of cardiac muscle examined global O-GlcNAc modification, enzymes that control its regulation (OGT, OGA), and specific proteins involved in mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation. LCR rats were insulin resistant disposing of 65% less glucose than HCR. Global tissue O-GlcNAc, OGT, OGA, and citrate synthase were similar between groups. Analysis of cardiac proteins revealed enhanced O-GlcNAcylation of mitochondrial Complex I, Complex IV, VDAC, and SERCA in LCR compared with HCR. These results are the first to establish an increase in specific protein O-GlcNAcylation in LCR animals that may contribute to progressive mitochondrial dysfunction and the pathogenesis of insulin resistance observed in the LCR phenotype.

Mesenchymal stem cell transplantation for the infarcted heart: therapeutic potential for insulin resistance beyond the heart.

BACKGROUND: This study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) transplantation to mitigate abnormalities in cardiac-specific and systemic metabolism mediated by a combination of a myocardial infarction and diet-induced insulin resistance. METHODS: C57BL/6 mice were high-fat fed for eight weeks prior to induction of a myocardial infarction via chronic ligation of the left anterior descending coronary artery. MSCs were administered directly after myocardial infarction induction through a single intramyocardial injection. Echocardiography was performed prior to the myocardial infarction as well as seven and 28 days post-myocardial infarction. Hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamps coupled with 2-[14C]deoxyglucose were employed 36 days post-myocardial infarction (13 weeks of high-fat feeding) to assess systemic insulin sensitivity and insulin-mediated, tissue-specific glucose uptake in the conscious, unrestrained mouse. High-resolution respirometry was utilized to evaluate cardiac mitochondrial function in saponin-permeabilized cardiac fibers. RESULTS: MSC administration minimized the decline in ejection fraction following the myocardial infarction. The greater systolic function in MSC-treated mice was associated with increased in vivo cardiac glucose uptake and enhanced mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation efficiency. MSC therapy promoted reductions in fasting arterial glucose and fatty acid concentrations. Additionally, glucose uptake in peripheral tissues including skeletal muscle and adipose tissue was elevated in MSC-treated mice. Enhanced glucose uptake in these tissues was associated with improved insulin signalling as assessed by Akt phosphorylation and prevention of a decline in GLUT4 often associated with high-fat feeding. CONCLUSIONS: These studies provide insight into the utility of MSC transplantation as a metabolic therapy that extends beyond the heart exerting beneficial systemic effects on insulin action.

Elevated liver glycogenolysis mediates higher blood glucose during acute exercise in Barth syndrome.

Barth syndrome (BTHS) is an X-linked recessive genetic disorder due to mutations in the Tafazzin (TAFAZZIN) gene that lead to cardiac and skeletal muscle mitochondrial dysfunction. Previous studies in humans with BTHS demonstrate that the defects in muscle mitochondrial oxidative metabolism result in an enhanced reliance on anaerobic metabolism during exercise to meet energy demands of muscular work. During exercise, the liver normally increases glucose production via glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis to match the elevated rate of muscle glucose uptake and meet the ATP requirements of working muscle. However, the impact of Tafazzin deficiency on hepatic glucose production and the pathways contributing to hepatic glucose production during exercise is unknown. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to quantify in vivo liver gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis in Tafazzin knockdown mice at rest and during acute exercise. METHODS: Male TAFAZZIN shRNA transgenic (TG) and wild-type (WT) mice completed exhaustive treadmill running protocols to test exercise tolerance. Mice underwent 2H- and 13C-stable isotope infusions at rest and during a 30-minute treadmill running bout to quantify hepatic glucose production and associated nutrient fluxes under sedentary conditions and during acute exercise. Circulating and tissue (skeletal muscle and liver) samples were obtained during and following exercise to assess static metabolite levels. RESULTS: TG mice reached exhaustion sooner during exhaustive treadmill running protocols and exhibited higher plasma lactate concentrations after exhaustive exercise compared to WT mice. Arterial glucose levels were comparable between genotypes at rest, but higher in TG mice compared to WT mice during exercise. Consistent with the higher blood glucose, TG mice showed increased endogenous glucose production owing to elevated glycogenolysis compared to WT mice during exercise. Total gluconeogenesis, gluconeogenesis from glycerol, gluconeogenesis from phosphoenolpyruvate, pyruvate cycling, total cataplerosis, and anaplerotic fluxes were similar between TG and WT mice at rest and during exercise. However, lactate dehydrogenase flux and TCA cycle fluxes trended higher in TG mice during exercise. Liver glycogen content in TG was higher in TG vs. controls. CONCLUSION: Our data in the Tafazzin knockdown mouse suggest that elevated anaerobic metabolism during rest and exercise previously reported in humans with BTHS are supported by the finding of higher hepatic glycogenolysis.

Gender-based heterogeneity of FAHFAs in trained runners.

Fatty acid esters of hydroxy fatty acid (FAHFA) are anti-diabetic and anti-inflammatory lipokines. Recently FAHFAs were also found to predict cardiorespiratory fitness in trained runners. Here we compared the association between circulating FAHFA baseline concentrations and body composition, determined by dual x-ray absorptiometry, in female runners who were lean (BMI < 25 kg/m2, n = 6), to those who were overweight (BMI ≥ 25 kg/m2, n = 7). We also compared circulating FAHFAs in lean male runners (n = 8) to the same trained lean female (n = 6) runner group. Circulating FAHFAs were increased in females in a manner that was modulated by specific adipose depot sizes, blood glucose, and lean body mass. As expected, circulating FAHFAs were diminished in the overweight group, but, strikingly, in both lean and overweight cohorts, increases in circulating FAHFAs were promoted by increased fat mass, relative to lean mass. These studies suggest multimodal regulation of circulating FAHFAs and raise hypotheses to test endogenous FAHFA dynamic sources and sinks in health and disease, which will be essential for therapeutic target development. Baseline circulating FAHFA concentrations could signal sub-clinical metabolic dysfunction in metabolically healthy obesity.

Disruption of Hepatic Mitochondrial Pyruvate and Amino Acid Metabolism Impairs Gluconeogenesis and Endurance Exercise Capacity in Mice.

Exercise robustly increases the glucose demands of skeletal muscle. This demand is met not only by muscle glycogenolysis, but also by accelerated liver glucose production from hepatic glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis to fuel mechanical work and prevent hypoglycemia during exercise. Hepatic gluconeogenesis during exercise is dependent on highly coordinated responses within and between muscle and liver. Specifically, exercise increases the rate at which gluconeogenic precursors such as pyruvate/lactate or amino acids are delivered from muscle to the liver, extracted by the liver, and channeled into glucose. Herein, we examined the effects of interrupting gluconeogenic efficiency and capacity on exercise performance by deleting hepatic mitochondrial pyruvate carrier 2 (MPC2) and/or alanine transaminase 2 (ALT2) in mice. We found that deletion of MPC2 or ALT2 alone did not significantly affect time to exhaustion or post-exercise glucose concentrations in treadmill exercise tests, but mice lacking both MPC2 and ALT2 in liver (DKO) reached exhaustion faster and exhibited lower circulating glucose during and after exercise. Use of ²H/¹³C metabolic flux analyses demonstrated that DKO mice exhibited lower endogenous glucose production owing to decreased glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis at rest and during exercise. The decreased gluconeogenesis was accompanied by lower anaplerotic, cataplerotic, and TCA cycle fluxes. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that the transition of the liver to the gluconeogenic mode is critical for preventing hypoglycemia and sustaining performance during exercise. The results also illustrate the need for interorgan crosstalk during exercise as described by the Cahill and Cori cycles.