Ice cage: new records and cryptic, isolated lineages in wingless snow flies (Diptera, Limoniidae: Chionea spp.) in German lower mountain ranges.

In Earth's history warm and cold periods have alternated. Especially, during the Pleistocene, the alternation between these different climatic conditions has led to frequent range expansions and retractions of many species: while thermophilic species dispersed during warm periods, cold adapted species retracted to cold refugia and vice versa. After the last Pleistocene cycle many cold adapted taxa found refuges in relict habitats in mountain ranges. One example for such a cold adapted relict is the flightless snow fly Chionea araneoides (Dalman, 1816). It can be found in lower mountain ranges of Central Europe exclusively in stone runs and stony accumulations which provide cold microclimates. Imagines develop only in winter. They have strongly restricted ranges and hence experienced strong isolation predicting that local populations may show local adaptation and hence also genetic differentiation. We investigated this for several middle mountain ranges of Germany using the COI barcoding gene. Our analyses revealed two distinct lineages, one in the Bavarian Forest and a second one in all other more northern locations up to Scandinavia. These lineages likely go back to post-Pleistocene isolation and should be studied in more detail in the future, also to confirm the taxonomic status of both lineages. Further, we confirmed former records of the species for Germany and report new records for the federal states of Saxony, Lower Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt and Thuringia. Finally, we provide the first evidence of two types of males for the species, a small and a larger male type.

Evolution of mitogenomic gene order in Orthoptera.

Mitochondrial gene order has contributed to the elucidation of evolutionary relationships in several animal groups. It generally has found its application as a phylogenetic marker for deep nodes. Yet, in Orthoptera limited research has been performed on the gene order, although the group represents one of the oldest insect orders. We performed a comprehensive study on mitochondrial genome rearrangements (MTRs) within Orthoptera in the context of mitogenomic sequence-based phylogeny. We used 280 published mitogenome sequences from 256 species, including three outgroup species, to reconstruct a molecular phylogeny. Using a heuristic approach, we assigned MTR scenarios to the edges of the phylogenetic tree and reconstructed ancestral gene orders to identify possible synapomorphies in Orthoptera. We found all types of MTRs in our dataset: inversions, transpositions, inverse transpositions, and tandem-duplication/random loss events (TDRL). Most of the suggested MTRs were in single and unrelated species. Out of five MTRs which were unique in subgroups of Orthoptera, we suggest four of them to be synapomorphies; those were in the infraorder Acrididea, in the tribe Holochlorini, in the subfamily Pseudophyllinae, and in the two families Phalangopsidae and Gryllidae or their common ancestor (leading to the relationship ((Phalangopsidae + Gryllidae) + Trigonidiidae)). However, similar MTRs have been found in distant insect lineages. Our findings suggest convergent evolution of specific mitochondrial gene orders in several species, deviant from the evolution of the mitogenome DNA sequence. As most MTRs were detected at terminal nodes, a phylogenetic inference of deeper nodes based on MTRs is not supported. Hence, the marker does not seem to aid resolving the phylogeny of Orthoptera, but adds further evidence for the complex evolution of the whole group, especially at the genetic and genomic levels. The results indicate a high demand for more research on patterns and underlying mechanisms of MTR events in Orthoptera.

Metabarcoding reveals that mixed forests mitigate negative effects of non-native trees on canopy arthropod diversity.

Averting climate change-induced forest diebacks increasingly relies on tree species planted outside of their natural range and on the addition of non-native tree species to mixed-species forests. However, the consequences of such changes for associated biodiversity remain poorly understood, especially for the forest canopy as a largely understudied forest stratum. Here, we used flight interception traps and a metabarcoding approach to study the taxonomic and functional (trophic guilds) composition and taxon richness of canopy arthropods. We sampled 15 monospecific and mixed stands of native European beech, native Norway spruce-planted outside its natural range-and non-native Douglas fir in northwest Germany. We found that the diversity of arthropods was lower in non-native Douglas fir compared with native beech stands. Taxon richness of herbivores was reduced by both conifer species. Other functional guilds, however, were not affected by stand type. Arthropod composition differed strongly between native broadleaved beech and monospecific coniferous (native spruce or non-native Douglas fir) stands, with less pronounced differences between the native and non-native conifers. Beech-conifer mixtures consistently hosted intermediate arthropod diversity and community composition compared with the respective monospecific stands. Moreover, arthropod diversity had a positive relationship with the number of canopy microhabitats. Our study shows that considering arthropod taxa of multiple functional groups reveals the multifaceted impact of non-native tree species on forest canopy arthropod communities. Contrasting with previous studies that primarily focused on the forest floor, we found that native beech hosts a rich diversity of arthropods, compared with lower diversity and distinct communities in economically attractive, and especially in non-native, conifers with few canopy microhabitats. Broadleaf-conifer mixtures did not perform better than native beech stands, but mitigated the negative effects of conifers, making such mixtures a compromise to foster both forest-associated diversity and economic yield.

Transcriptomic data reveals nuclear-mitochondrial discordance in Gomphocerinae grasshoppers (Insecta: Orthoptera: Acrididae).

The phylogeny of many groups of Orthoptera remains poorly understood. Previous phylogenetic studies largely restricted to few mitochondrial markers found many species in the grasshopper subfamily Gomphocerinae to be para- or polyphyletic, presumably because of incomplete lineage sorting and ongoing hybridization between putatively young lineages. Resolving the phylogeny of the Chorthippus biguttulus species complex is important because many morphologically cryptic species occupy overlapping ranges across Eurasia and serve important ecological functions. We investigated whether multispecies coalescent analysis of 540 genes generated by transcriptome sequencing could resolve the phylogeny of the C. biguttulus complex and related Gomphocerinae species. Our divergence time estimates confirm that Gomphocerinae is a very young radiation, with an age estimated at 1.38 (2.35-0.77) mya for the C. biguttulus complex. Our estimated topology based on complete mitogenomes recovered some species as para- or polyphyletic. In contrast, the multispecies coalescent based on nuclear genes retrieved all species as monophyletic clusters, corroborating most taxonomic hypotheses. Our results underline the importance of using nuclear multispecies coalescent methods for studying young radiations and highlight the need of further taxonomic revision in Gomphocerinae grasshoppers.

Global distribution and host range of the endoparasitic mite genus Locustacarus (Acari: Podapolipidae) with description of a new species from Iran parasitizing grasshoppers (Orthoptera: Acrididae).

Mites (Acari) represent important parasites for a diverse range of hosts. Within the Acari, the Prostigmata represent a diverse suborder of the order Trombidiformes with about 20 000 species, including parasitic forms on both vertebrates and invertebrates. Within the Prostigmata, the genus Locustacarus (Heterostigmata: Podapolipidae) is particularly known as an intratracheal parasite of bumblebees and grasshoppers. In a survey on prostigmatic mites (Acari: Trombidiformes: Prostigmata) associated with insects in the eastern parts of Iran, one new species of the endoparasitic Locustacarus was collected associated to the grasshopper Aiolopus thalassinus (Fabricius) (Orthoptera: Acrididae). This new species, Locustacarus aiolopi Rahmatzaei & Hajiqanbar n. sp., is described here and compared morphologically with other species of the genus. This new species represents the first record of a grasshopper-associated Locustacarus species in the Palearctic. We further provide a comprehensive review of the global distribution of this genus as well as its host range.

Phylogeography of Bellamya (Mollusca: Gastropoda: Viviparidae) snails on different continents: contrasting patterns of diversification in China and East Africa.

BACKGROUND: Species diversity is determined by both local environmental conditions that control differentiation and extinction and the outcome of large-scale processes that affect migration. The latter primarily comprises climatic change and dynamic landscape alteration. In the past few million years, both Southeast Asia and Eastern Africa experienced drastic climatic and geological oscillations: in Southeast Asia, especially in China, the Tibetan Plateau significantly rose up, and the flow of the Yangtze River was reversed. In East Africa, lakes and rivers experienced frequent range expansions and regressions due to the African mega-droughts. To test how such climatic and geological histories of both regions relate to their respective regional species and genetic diversity, a large scale comparative phylogeographic study is essential. Bellamya, a species rich freshwater snail genus that is widely distributed across China and East Africa, represents a suitable model system to address this question. We sequenced mitochondrial and nuclear DNA for members of the genus from China and used published sequences from Africa and some other locations in Asia to investigate their phylogeny and distribution of genetic diversity. RESULTS: Our phylogenetic analysis revealed two monophyletic groups, one in China and one in East Africa. Within the Chinese group, Bellamya species show little genetic differentiation. In contrast, we observe fairly deep divergence among the East African lakes with almost every lake possessing its unique clade. Our results show that strong divergence does not necessarily depend on intrinsic characteristics of a species, but rather is related to the landscape dynamics of a region. CONCLUSION: Our phylogenetic results suggest that the Bellamya in China and East Africa are independent phylogenetic clades with different evolutionary trajectories. The different climate and geological histories likely contributed to the diverging evolutionary patterns. Repeated range expansions and regressions of lakes likely contributed to the great divergence of Bellamya in East Africa, while reversal of the river courses and intermingling of different lineages had an opposite effect on Bellamya diversification in China.

Evolution of contact and alarm calls in the Kenyan endemic Hinde's babbler (Aves: Passeriformes).

BACKGROUND: Spatial isolation, diverging environmental conditions and social structures may lead to the differentiation of various traits, e.g. molecules, morphology and behaviour. Bird calls may provide important information on effects of geographic isolation and may reflect diverging ecological conditions related to altitude. Furthermore, bird calls are strongly shaped by the social behaviour of species. The Kenyan endemic bird Hinde's Babbler, Turdoides hindei, is a cooperative breeder existing in distinct family groups. The species occurs in five isolated population groups at different altitudes across its distribution range in south-eastern Kenya. With this model species we test for potential effects of geographic isolation, diverging altitudes, and social structures. We recorded and analysed contact and alarm calls of T. hindei, including its entire distribution range and all existing population groups. RESULTS: Our data show significant differentiation of call characteristics among population groups across the species' distribution range. This differentiation is correlated with geographical distance, but also with altitude. We also found strong call differentiation among neighbouring family groups. Call differentiation of contact calls was comparatively high in comparison to alarm calls, which showed a lower degree of divergence. CONCLUSION: Our data show that call differentiation is governed by geographic isolation as well as altitude. Diverging degrees of call differentiation in contact and alarm calls suggests that both call types are under different selective pressures. Alarm calls are required to be understood by all members of the species across the entire distribution range and thus call differentiation is lower. In contrast, contact calls are more specific and differ even among neighbouring families supporting the maintenance of distinct bird families and groups.

Replication of honey bee-associated RNA viruses across multiple bee species in apple orchards of Georgia, Germany and Kyrgyzstan.

The essential ecosystem service of pollination is provided largely by insects, which are considered threatened by diverse biotic and abiotic global change pressures. RNA viruses are one such pressure, and have risen in prominence as a major threat for honey bees (Apis mellifera) and global apiculture, as well as a risk factor for other bee species through pathogen spill-over between managed honey bees and sympatric wild pollinator communities. Yet despite their potential role in global bee decline, the prevalence of honey bee-associated RNA viruses in wild bees is poorly known from both geographic and taxonomic perspectives. We screened members of pollinator communities (honey bees, bumble bees and other wild bees belonging to four families) collected from apple orchards in Georgia, Germany and Kyrgyzstan for six common honey bee-associated RNA virus complexes encompassing nine virus targets. The Deformed wing virus complex (DWV genotypes A and B) had the highest prevalence across all localities and host species and was the only virus complex found in wild bee species belonging to all four studied families. Based on amplification of negative-strand viral RNA, we found evidence for viral replication in wild bee species of DWV-A/DWV-B (hosts: Andrena haemorrhoa and several Bombus spp.) and Black queen cell virus (hosts: Anthophora plumipes, several Bombus spp., Osmia bicornis and Xylocopa spp.). Viral amplicon sequences revealed that DWV-A and DWV-B are regionally distinct but identical in two or more bee species at any one site, suggesting virus is shared amongst sympatric bee taxa. This study demonstrates that honey bee associated RNA viruses are geographically and taxonomically widespread, likely infective in wild bee species, and shared across bee taxa.

A new amplicon based approach of whole mitogenome sequencing for phylogenetic and phylogeographic analysis: An example of East African white-eyes (Aves, Zosteropidae).

Classical Sanger sequencing is still frequently used to generate sequence data for phylogenetic and phylogeographic inference. In this contribution we present a novel approach to genotype whole mitogenomic haplotypes using Illumina MiSeq reads from indexed amplicons. Our new approach reduces preparation time by multiplexing loci within a single or few PCR reactions and by plate format library construction. The use of paired-end reads allows covering amplicons of about 0.5kb and thus no nebulisation and assembly are necessary. We tested the power and effectiveness of this technique by analysing the mitogenomic diversity of East African white-eye bird species (Zosteropidae), a taxonomically highly diverse and complex species flock found in various ecosystems spread across major parts of Africa. We compare the newly generated mitogenomic data set with published data of three mitochondrial genes for a similar set of populations and taxa. The comparison demonstrates that our new procedure represents a cost effective use of NGS for medium throughput phylogenetic analyses. Using this method, we were able to increase the amount of phylogenetic information significantly, while reducing the costs and effort in the laboratory. The mitogenomic data show a higher resolution than previous studies providing higher support and new insights in the relationships of Zosterops species. Our data suggest to split Z. poliogaster into four distinct species, three of which had previously been proposed: Z. silvanus, Z. mbulensis, Z. kikyuensis and Z. kulalensis. Our approach allows the genotyping of whole mitogenomes for a large number of individuals and thus allows more reliable reconstruction of phylogenetic and phylogeographic relationships - also for non-model organisms.

A genetic demographic analysis of Lake Malawi rock-dwelling cichlids using spatio-temporal sampling.

We estimated the effective population sizes (Ne ) and tested for short-term temporal demographic stability of populations of two Lake Malawi cichlids: Maylandia benetos, a micro-endemic, and Maylandia zebra, a widespread species found across the lake. We sampled a total of 351 individuals, genotyped them at 13 microsatellite loci and sequenced their mitochondrial D-loop to estimate genetic diversity, population structure, demographic history and effective population sizes. At the microsatellite loci, genetic diversity was high in all populations. Yet, genetic diversity was relatively low for the sequence data. Microsatellites yielded mean Ne estimates of 481 individuals (±99 SD) for M. benetos and between 597 (±106.3 SD) and 1524 (±483.9 SD) individuals for local populations of M. zebra. The microsatellite data indicated no deviations from mutation-drift equilibrium. Maylandia zebra was further found to be in migration-drift equilibrium. Temporal fluctuations in allele frequencies were limited across the sampling period for both species. Bayesian Skyline analyses suggested a recent expansion of M. zebra populations in line with lake-level fluctuations, whereas the demographic history of M. benetos could only be estimated for the very recent past. Divergence time estimates placed the origin of M. benetos within the last 100 ka after the refilling of the lake and suggested that it split off the sympatric M. zebra population. Overall, our data indicate that micro-endemics and populations in less favourable habitats have smaller Ne , indicating that drift may play an important role driving their divergence. Yet, despite small population sizes, high genetic variation can be maintained.

The evolution of contact calls in isolated and overlapping populations of two white-eye congeners in East Africa (Aves, Zosterops).

BACKGROUND: Closely related species often occur in geographic isolation, yet sometimes form contact zones with the potential to hybridize. Pre-zygotic barriers may prevent cross breeding in such contact zones. In East Africa, White-eye birds have evolved into various species, inhabiting different habitat types. Zosterops poliogaster is found in cool and moist cloud forests at higher elevations, whereas Z. abyssinicus is distributed across the dry and hot lowland savannahs. In most areas, these two species occur allopatrically, but in the contact zone where the mountain meets the savannah, the distributions of these species sometimes overlap (parapatry), and in a few areas the two taxa occur sympatrically. Acoustic communication is thought to be an important species recognition mechanism in birds and an effective prezygotic barrier for hybridisation. We recorded contact calls of both the lowland and highland species in (i) distinct populations (allopatry), (ii) along contact zones (parapatry), and (iii) in overlapping populations (sympatry) to test for species and population differentiation. RESULTS: We found significant differences in call characteristics between the highland and lowland species, in addition to call differentiation within species. The highland Z. poliogaster shows a strong call differentiation among local populations, accompanied by comparatively low variability in their contact calls within populations (i.e. a small acoustic space). In contrast, calls of the lowland Z. abyssinicus are not differentiated among local sites but show relatively high variability in calls within single populations. Call patterns in both species show geographic clines in relation to latitude and longitude. Calls from parapatric populations from both species showed greater similarity to the other taxon in comparison to heterospecific populations found in allopatry. However, where the two species occur sympatrically, contact calls of both species are more distinct from each other than in either allopatric or parapatric populations. CONCLUSION: The contrasting patterns reflect divergent spatial distributions: the highland Z. poliogaster populations are highly disjunct, while Z. abyssinicus lowland populations are interconnected. Higher similarity in contact calls of heterospecific populations might be due to intermixing. In contrast, sympatric populations show reproductive character displacement which leads to strongly divergent call patterns.

Multiple independent colonization of the Canary Islands by the winged grasshopper genus Sphingonotus Fieber, 1852.

Volcanic archipelagos represent ideal systems to study processes of colonization, differentiation and speciation. The Canary Islands are one of the best studied archipelagos, being composed of seven main islands with a well-known geological history. Most taxa have colonized these islands stepwise from the African or Iberian mainland from east to west, following their geological origin as well as the predominating wind direction and ocean currents. Furthermore, within-island radiations have been reported for several taxa. The grasshopper genus Sphingonotus is species-rich and occurs with nine fully winged species on the Canary Islands, seven of which are endemic to single or few islands. We inferred a phylogeny of these species and their North African and Iberian relatives based upon sequences of three mitochondrial genes and one nuclear gene of 136 specimens. Surprisingly, our results suggest that almost all Sphingonotus species colonized the archipelago independently from the mainland and nearly no inter-island colonization occurred. Despite their strong flight capabilities, only one pair of endemic species are closely related (S. sublaevis from Gran Canary and S. pachecoi from Lanzarote). Moreover, no within-island speciation events were detected. We hypothesize that passive wind dispersal from the African mainland was the main driver of the colonization process and that most Sphingonotus species are not able to cover inter-island distances by active flight. This, together with strong intrageneric niche overlap might explain the lack of within-island speciation in this taxon.

Barcoding Fails to Delimit Species in Mongolian Oedipodinae (Orthoptera, Acrididae).

Mongolia, a country in central Asia, with its vast grassland areas represents a hotspot for Orthoptera diversity, especially for the Acrididae. For Mongolia, 128 Acrididae species have been documented so far, of which 41 belong to the subfamily Oedipodinae (band-winged grasshoppers). Yet, few studies concerning the distribution and diversity of Oedipodinae have been conducted in this country. Molecular genetic data is almost completely absent, despite its value for species identification and discovery. Even, the simplest and most used data, DNA barcodes, so far have not been generated for the local fauna. Therefore, we generated the first DNA barcode data for Mongolian band-winged grasshoppers and investigated the resolution of this marker for species delimitation. We were able to assemble 105 DNA barcode (COI) sequences of 35 Oedipodinae species from Mongolia and adjacent countries. Based on this data, we reconstructed maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference phylogenies. We, furthermore, conducted automatic barcode gap discovery and used the Poisson tree process (PTP) for species delimitation. Some resolution was achieved at the tribe and genus level, but all delimitation methods failed to differentiate species by using the COI region. This lack of resolution may have multiple possible reasons, which likely differ between taxa: the lack of resolution in the Bryodemini may be partially explained by their massive genomes, implying the potential presence of large numbers of pseudogenes, while within the Sphingonotini incomplete lineage sorting and incorrect taxonomy are more likely explanations for the lack of signal. Further studies based on a larger number of gene fragments, including nuclear DNA, are needed to distinguish the species also at the molecular level.

A forest butterfly in sahara desert oases: isolation does not matter.

Numerous studies addressing the impact of habitat fragmentation on genetic diversity have been performed. In this study, we analyze the effects of a seemingly nonpermeable matrix on the population structure of the forest-dwelling butterfly Pararge aegeria in geographically isolated oases at the northern margin of the Sahara desert using microsatellites, morphological characters, and species distribution modeling. Results from all analyses are mostly congruent and reveal 1) a split between European and North African populations, 2) rather low divergence between populations from the eastern and western part of North Africa (Morocco vs. Tunisia), 3) a lack of differentiation between the oasis and Atlas Mountain populations, 4) as well as among the oasis populations, and 5) no reduction of genetic variability in oasis populations. However, one exception to this general trend resulted from the analyses of wing shape; wings of butterflies from oases are more elongated compared with those from the other habitats. This pattern of phenotypic divergence may suggest a recent colonization of the oasis habitats by individuals, which might be accompanied by a rather dispersive behavior. Species distribution modeling suggests a fairly recent reexpansion of the species' climatic niche starting in the Holocene at about 6000 before present. The combined results indicate a rather recent colonization of the oases by highly mobile individuals from genetically diverse founder populations. The colonization was likely followed by the expansion and persistence of these founder populations under relatively stable environmental conditions. This, together with low rates of gene flow, likely prevented differentiation of populations via drift and led to the maintenance of high genetic diversity.

Afrosystolederus garmsi (Orthoptera, Tetrigidae), a new genus and species from Mount Gibi (Liberia) with remarks on Systolederus, Pseudosystolederus and Teredorus.

A new genus, Afrosystolederus, and a new species, Afrosystolederus garmsi, are described from Mount Gibi in Liberia. This African genus is most similar to Pseudosystolederus Günther, 1939 from Africa and Madagascar and to some members of Systolederus Bolivar, 1887 from Asia. The taxonomic difficulties of genera and species with a narrow fastigium are discussed. Teredorus aztecus nov.comb. is transferred from the genus Paratettix Bolivar, 1887. It is proposed to transfer all Indo-Malayan species from Teredorus Hancock, 1907 to Systolederus Bolivar, 1887, resulting in 26 new combinations and six replacement names: Systolederus albimarginus (Zheng & Zhou, 1996) nov. comb., Systolederus bashanensis (Zheng, 1993) nov. comb., Systolederus bhattacharyi (Shishodia, 1991) nov. comb., Systolederus bidentatus (Zheng, Huo & Zhang, 2000) nov. comb., Systolederus bipulvillus (Zheng, 2006) nov. comb., Systolederus brachynotoides Zheng, Ou & Lin, 2012 nov. comb., Systolederus brachynotus (Zheng & Xu, 2010) nov. comb., Systolederus camurimarginus (Zheng, 1998) nov. comb., Systolederus carmichaeli (Hancock, 1915) nov. comb., Systolederus chiangraensis (Za, Wen, Kang & Hyde, 2016) nov.comb., Systolederus combfemorus (Za, Wen, Kang & Hyde, 2016) nov. comb., Systolederus ebenotus (Zheng & Li, 2001) nov. comb., Systolederus eurylobatus (Zheng, Shi & Mao, 2010) nov. comb., Systolederus flatimarginus (Zheng & Liang, 2000) nov. comb., Systolederus flavistrial (Zheng, 2006) nov. comb., Systolederus frontalis (Hancock, 1915) nov.comb., Systolederus guizhouensis (Zheng, 1993) nov. comb., Systolederus hainanensis (Zheng, 1993) nov. comb., Systolederus longipulvillus (Zheng, 1988) nov. comb., Systolederus nigropennis (Deng, Zheng & Lu, 2013) nov. comb., Systolederus parvipulvillus (Deng, Lei & Zheng, 2014) nov. comb., Systolederus prominemarginis (Zheng & Jiang, 1993) nov. comb., Systolederus taibeiensis (Zheng & Xu, 2010) nov. comb., Systolederus xishuiensis (Zheng, Li & Shi, 2003) nov. comb. , Systolederus wuyishanensis (Zheng, 1993) nov. comb., Systolederus lii Devriese nov. nom., Systolederus lini Devriese nov.nom., Systolederus oui Devriese nov. nom., Systolederus rongduensis Devriese nov. nom., Systolederus yuanlingensis Devriese nov. nom., Systolederus zhengi Devriese nov. nom.

Revision of the Metarbelodes Strand, 1909 genus-group(Lepidoptera: Cossoidea: Metarbelidae) with descriptions of two new genera and 33 new species from high elevations of eastern and southern Africa.

The African genus-group Metarbelodes Strand, 1909 of the family Metarbelidae comprises three genera: the monotypic Metarbelodes; Zambezia, gen. nov. with five new species (i.e., Zambezia diredaouaensis sp. nov.; Zambezia madambae sp. nov.; Zambezia jennyhuntae sp. nov.; Zambezia durrellbarnesi sp. nov.; Zambezia darrelplowesi sp. nov.); and Lukeniana, gen. nov. with 28 new species (i.e., Lukeniana enaiposha sp. nov.; Lukeniana raymondrevellii sp. nov.; Lukeniana rajaeii sp. nov.; Lukeniana tubiraensis sp. nov.; Lukeniana lutztoepferi sp. nov.; Lukeniana madrandelei sp. nov.; Lukeniana friederikebauerae sp. nov.; Lukeniana chapmani sp. nov.; Lukeniana michaelgrzimeki sp. nov.; Lukeniana kammeri sp. nov.; Lukeniana timdavenporti sp. nov.; Lukeniana mzuzuensis sp. nov.; Lukeniana mbalaensis sp. nov.; Lukeniana robplowesi sp. nov.; Lukeniana hausmanni sp. nov.; Lukeniana lenzi sp. nov.; Lukeniana stueningi sp. nov.; Lukeniana utaheidenreichae sp. nov.; Lukeniana georgeadamsoni sp. nov.; Lukeniana mikerobertsi sp. nov.; Lukeniana andreashempi sp. nov.; Lukeniana kakamegaensis sp. nov.; Lukeniana jankiellandi sp. nov.; Lukeniana bergsteni sp. nov.; Lukeniana carolae sp. nov.; Lukeniana stevecollinsi sp. nov.; Lukeniana butleri sp. nov.; Lukeniana kollhorsti sp. nov.), plus Lukeniana obliqualinea (Bethune-Baker, 1909), new comb. Metarbelodes is recorded only from the Bvumba Mountains in eastern Zimbabwe; Zambezia is represented by one species in the northern escarpment of the Harar Plateau (East-Central Ethiopia) and four species on the Southern African Plateau and the adjacent Bvumba Mountains; and Lukeniana occurs near the northern edge of the Southern African Plateau, but primarily in areas associated with the East African Rift System (EARS; both the Western and Eastern Branch). We provide detailed descriptions and images of all species and the first identification key. This revision represents the first comprehensive taxonomic treatment of the group and provides the basis for future work on this rare and cryptic, but diverse group of moth.

An identification key to the genera and species of Afrotropical Tetrigini (genera Paratettix, Leptacrydium, Hedotettix, Rectitettix nov. gen., and Alienitettix nov.gen.) with general remarks on the taxonomy of Tetrigini (Orthoptera, Tetrigidae).

The Afrotropical species hitherto considered to belong to the genera Paratettix Bolivar, 1887, Leptacrydium Chopard, 1950 and Hedotettix Bolivar, 1887 are reviewed, and two new genera, Alienitettix nov. gen. and Rectitettix nov. gen., are established. Four new species are described: Alienitettix usambarensis nov. sp., Leptacrydium femurcrassum nov. sp., Leptacrydium rhombeum nov. sp. and Rectitettix burri nov. sp. Several new combinations are created: Alienitettix gilloni (Günther, 1979) nov. comb. for Paratettix gilloni, Alienitettix villiersi (Günther, 1979) nov. comb. for Paratettix villiersi, Hippodes abidjanensis (Günther, 1979) nov. comb. for Coptotettix abidjanensis, Leptacrydium nanum (Bruner, 1910) nov. comb. for Tetrix nanus and Paratettix royi (Günther, 1979) nov. comb. for Leptacrydium royi. Paratettix angustivertex Bolivar, 1908 is resurrected. It is discussed whether the North American Tetrix arenosa (Burmeister, 1838) belongs to Tetrix and Tetrigini. The following synonyms are established: Coptotettix annulipes Karsch, 1890 nov. syn. and C. convexus Hancock, 1910 nov. syn. = C. rufipes Bolivar, 1887; Paratettix asbenensis Chopard, 1950 nov. syn. = P. pallipes (Walker, 1871); Telmatettix burri Hancock, 1900 nov.syn. and Paratettix macrostenus Günther, 1979 nov. syn. = Paratettix subpustulatus (Walker, 1871); Paratettix chopardi Günther, 1979 nov. syn. = P. africanus Bolivar, 1908; Paratettix marshalli Hancock, 1908 nov. syn. = Paratettix scaber (Thunberg, 1815); Paratettix obtusipulvillus Günther, 1979 nov. syn. = Paratettix spretus Günther, 1979; and Tettix waelboecki Bolivar, 1908 nov. syn. = Leptacrydium gratiosum (Karsch, 1893). Identification keys for all species and pictures of the majority of species are presented. New country records are given. New definitions of the pronotal forms in Tetrigidae are established based on their relationship to the fore (elytra) and hind wings (alae), with a new form, the pauropronotal, being introduced for the form where the fully functional hind wings are clearly longer than the pronotum; the new form is apomorphous for the Afrotropical Tetrigini. A provisional diagnosis for the (Afrotropical) Tetrigini is given. Coptotettix Bolivar, 1887 is removed from the Tetrigini and placed near Thoradontini and Criotettigini.

New estimates of genome size in Orthoptera and their evolutionary implications.

Animal genomes vary widely in size, and much of their architecture and content remains poorly understood. Even among related groups, such as orders of insects, genomes may vary in size by orders of magnitude-for reasons unknown. The largest known insect genomes were repeatedly found in Orthoptera, e.g., Podisma pedestris (1C = 16.93 pg), Stethophyma grossum (1C = 18.48 pg) and Bryodemella holdereri (1C = 18.64 pg). While all these species belong to the suborder of Caelifera, the ensiferan Deracantha onos (1C = 19.60 pg) was recently found to have the largest genome. Here, we present new genome size estimates of 50 further species of Ensifera (superfamilies Gryllidea, Tettigoniidea) and Caelifera (Acrididae, Tetrigidae) based on flow cytometric measurements. We found that Bryodemella tuberculata (Caelifera: Acrididae) has the so far largest measured genome of all insects with 1C = 21.96 pg (21.48 gBp). Species of Orthoptera with 2n = 16 and 2n = 22 chromosomes have significantly larger genomes than species with other chromosome counts. Gryllidea genomes vary between 1C = 0.95 and 2.88 pg, and Tetrigidae between 1C = 2.18 and 2.41, while the genomes of all other studied Orthoptera range in size from 1C = 1.37 to 21.96 pg. Reconstructing ancestral genome sizes based on a phylogenetic tree of mitochondrial genomic data, we found genome size values of >15.84 pg only for the nodes of Bryodemella holdereri / B. tuberculata and Chrysochraon dispar / Euthystira brachyptera. The predicted values of ancestral genome sizes are 6.19 pg for Orthoptera, 5.37 pg for Ensifera, and 7.28 pg for Caelifera. The reasons for the large genomes in Orthoptera remain largely unknown, but a duplication or polyploidization seems unlikely as chromosome numbers do not differ much. Sequence-based genomic studies may shed light on the underlying evolutionary mechanisms.

The Genomics of Isolated Populations of Gampsocleis glabra (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae) in Central and Western Europe.

Habitat destruction and fragmentation are among the major current threats to global biodiversity. Fragmentation may also affect species with good dispersal abilities. We study the heath bushcricket Gampsocleis glabra, a specialist of steppe-like habitats across Europe that are highly fragmented, investigating if these isolated populations can be distinguished using population genomics and if there are any traces of admixture or dispersal among them. We try to answer these questions using genome-wide SNP data generated with ddRAD sequencing. We calculated F-statistics and visualized differentiation using STRUCTURE plots. While limited by the difficulty of sampling this threatened species, our results show that all populations except one that was represented by a singleton were clearly distinct, with pairwise FST values between 0.010 and 0.181. STRUCTURE indicated limited but visible admixture across most populations and probably also an exchange of individuals between populations of Germany and The Netherlands. We conclude that in G. glabra, a certain amount of gene flow has persisted, at least in the past, also among populations that are isolated today. We also detect a possibly more recent dispersal event between a population in The Netherlands and one in Germany, which may be human aided. We suggest that the conservation of larger populations should be maintained, that efforts should be taken to restore abandoned habitat, that the preservation even of small habitat fragments may be beneficial for the conservation of this species, and that these habitats should be regularly monitored for possible (re-)colonization.

Evolution and radiation in the scorpion Buthus elmoutaouakili Lourenco and Qi 2006 (Scorpiones: Buthidae) at the foothills of the Atlas Mountains (North Africa).

When low dispersal ability of an organism meets geographical barriers, the evolution of inter- and intraspecific differentiation is often facilitated. In the Atlas massif of North Africa, the genus Buthus splits into several species and diverges into numerous genetic lineages, often following the orographic structures of mountain systems. Such high mountain ranges often act as barriers for species with reduced mobility even on small spatial scales. To study the effect of orographic structures on organisms with low dispersal ability, we collected 61 individuals of the scorpion species Buthus elmoutaouakili at 18 locations around the southwestern foothills of the High Atlas and Antiatlas and in the Sousse valley (western Morocco). We analyzed intraspecific differentiation patterns within this geographically restricted area of about 100 × 50 km using 452 bp of the cytochrome oxidase I mitochondrial gene. We detected 5 distinct genetic lineages. In a second analysis, we added 61 previously published sequences from Buthus species from Europe and North Africa. Using a molecular clock approach, we detected old splits (4-5 Ma) separating the samples from 1) the western High Atlas and north of these mountains, 2) the Sousse valley and adjoining mountain areas, and 3) the southwestern Antiatlas. Further differentiation happened in the first 2 geographical groups about 3 Ma. Thus, the divergence time estimates based on a Bayesian approach support the onset of differentiation into these main clades along the Pliocene (5-2.3 Ma) when climatic oscillations started and a constant global cooling preceded the glacial-interglacial cycles of the Pleistocene. Further genetic splits into parapatric groups are detectable for the Sousse valley main group in the early Pleistocene. The climatic oscillations of the Pliocene and early Pleistocene might have caused repeated range shifts, expansions, and retractions leading to repeated vicariance, hereby producing the hierarchical structure of genetic differentiation in B. elmoutaouakili. A taxonomic revision, including morphological and molecular data, is needed to assess the status of each of these Buthus scorpion lineages.