Associations between accelerated forgetting, amyloid deposition and brain atrophy in older adults.

Accelerated long-term forgetting (ALF) is the phenomenon whereby material is retained normally over short intervals (e.g. minutes) but forgotten abnormally rapidly over longer periods (days or weeks). ALF may be an early marker of cognitive decline, but little is known about its relationships with preclinical Alzheimer's disease pathology, and how memory selectivity may influence which material is forgotten. We assessed ALF in 'Insight 46', a sub-study of the MRC National Survey of Health and Development (a population-based cohort born during one week in 1946) (n=429; 47% female; assessed aged ∼73 years). ALF assessment comprised visual and verbal memory tests: Complex Figure Drawing and the Face-Name Associative Memory Exam (FNAME). ALF scores were calculated as the percentage of material retained after 7 days, relative to 30 minutes. In 306 cognitively-normal participants, we investigated effects on ALF of ß-amyloid pathology (quantified using 18F-Florbetapir-PET, classified as positive/negative) and whole-brain and hippocampal atrophy rate (quantified from serial T1-MRI over ∼2.4 years preceding the ALF assessment), as well as interactions between these pathologies. We categorized Complex Figure Drawing items as 'outline' or 'detail', to test our hypothesis that forgetting the outline of the structure would be more sensitive to the effect of brain pathologies. We also investigated associations between ALF and Subjective Cognitive Decline, measured with the MyCog questionnaire. Complex Figure 'outline' items were better retained than 'detail' items (mean retention over 7 days = 94% vs 72%). Amyloid-positive participants showed greater forgetting of the Complex Figure outline, compared to amyloid-negatives (90% vs 95%; P<0.01). There were interactions between amyloid pathology and cerebral atrophy, such that whole-brain and hippocampal atrophy predicted greater ALF on Complex Figure Drawing among amyloid-positives only (e.g. 1.9 percentage-points lower retention per ml/year of whole-brain atrophy [95% confidence intervals 0.5, 3.7]; P<0.05). Greater ALF on FNAME was associated with increased rate of hippocampal atrophy. ALF on Complex Figure Drawing also correlated with subjective cognitive decline (-0.45 percentage-points per MyCog point [-0.85, -0.05], P<0.05). These results provide evidence of associations between some measures of ALF and biomarkers of brain pathologies and subjective cognitive decline in cognitively-normal older adults. On Complex Figure Drawing, 'outline' items were better remembered than 'detail' items - illustrating the strategic role of memory selectivity - but 'outline' items were also relatively more vulnerable to ALF in individuals with amyloid pathology. Overall, our findings suggest that ALF may be a sensitive marker of cognitive changes in preclinical Alzheimer's disease.

Peripheral hearing loss at age 70 predicts brain atrophy and associated cognitive change.

BACKGROUND: Hearing loss has been proposed as a modifiable risk factor for dementia. However, the relationship between hearing, neurodegeneration, and cognitive change, and the extent to which pathological processes such as Alzheimer's disease and cerebrovascular disease influence these relationships, is unclear. METHODS: Data from 287 adults born in the same week of 1946 who underwent baseline pure tone audiometry (mean age=70.6 years) and two time point cognitive assessment/multimodal brain imaging (mean interval 2.4 years) were analysed. Hearing impairment at baseline was defined as a pure tone average of greater than 25 decibels in the best hearing ear. Rates of change for whole brain, hippocampal and ventricle volume were estimated from structural MRI using the Boundary Shift Integral. Cognition was assessed using the Pre-clinical Alzheimer's Cognitive Composite. Regression models were performed to evaluate how baseline hearing impairment associated with subsequent brain atrophy and cognitive decline after adjustment for a range of confounders including baseline ß-amyloid deposition and white matter hyperintensity volume. RESULTS: 111 out of 287 participants had hearing impairment. Compared with those with preserved hearing, hearing impaired individuals had faster rates of whole brain atrophy, and worse hearing (higher pure tone average) predicted faster rates of hippocampal atrophy. In participants with hearing impairment, faster rates of whole brain atrophy predicted greater cognitive change. All observed relationships were independent of ß-amyloid deposition and white matter hyperintensity volume. CONCLUSIONS: Hearing loss may influence dementia risk via pathways distinct from those typically implicated in Alzheimer's and cerebrovascular disease in cognitively unimpaired older adults.

Rates of cortical thinning in Alzheimer's disease signature regions associate with vascular burden but not with ß-amyloid status in cognitively normal adults at age 70.

BACKGROUND: Consistent patterns of reduced cortical thickness have been identified in early Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, the pathological factors that influence rates of cortical thinning within these AD signature regions remain unclear. METHODS: Participants were from the Insight 46 substudy of the MRC National Survey of Health and Development (NSHD; 1946 British birth cohort), a prospective longitudinal cohort study. Linear regression was used to examine associations of baseline cerebral ß-amyloid (Aß) deposition, measured using florbetapir positron emission tomography, and baseline white matter hyperintensity volume (WMHV) on MRI, a marker of cerebral small vessel disease, with subsequent longitudinal changes in AD signature cortical thickness quantified from baseline and repeat MRI (mean [SD] interval 2.4 [0.2] years). RESULTS: In a population-based sample of 337 cognitively normal older white adults (mean [SD] age at baseline 70.5 [0.6] years; 48.1% female), higher global WMHV at baseline related to faster subsequent rates of cortical thinning in both AD signature regions (~0.15%/year faster per 10 mL additional WMHV), whereas baseline Aß status did not. Among Aß positive participants (n=56), there was some evidence that greater global Aß standardised uptake value ratio at baseline related to faster cortical thinning in the AD signature Mayo region, but this did not reach statistical significance (p=0.08). CONCLUSIONS: Cortical thinning within AD signature regions may develop via cerebrovascular pathways. Perhaps reflecting the age of the cohort and relatively low prevalence of Aß-positivity, robust Aß-related differences were not detected. Longitudinal follow-up incorporating additional biomarkers will allow assessment of how these relationships evolve closer to expected dementia onset.

Updating the study protocol: Insight 46 - a longitudinal neuroscience sub-study of the MRC National Survey of Health and Development - phases 2 and 3.

BACKGROUND: Although age is the biggest known risk factor for dementia, there remains uncertainty about other factors over the life course that contribute to a person's risk for cognitive decline later in life. Furthermore, the pathological processes leading to dementia are not fully understood. The main goals of Insight 46-a multi-phase longitudinal observational study-are to collect detailed cognitive, neurological, physical, cardiovascular, and sensory data; to combine those data with genetic and life-course information collected from the MRC National Survey of Health and Development (NSHD; 1946 British birth cohort); and thereby contribute to a better understanding of healthy ageing and dementia. METHODS/DESIGN: Phase 1 of Insight 46 (2015-2018) involved the recruitment of 502 members of the NSHD (median age = 70.7 years; 49% female) and has been described in detail by Lane and Parker et al. 2017. The present paper describes phase 2 (2018-2021) and phase 3 (2021-ongoing). Of the 502 phase 1 study members who were invited to a phase 2 research visit, 413 were willing to return for a clinic visit in London and 29 participated in a remote research assessment due to COVID-19 restrictions. Phase 3 aims to recruit 250 study members who previously participated in both phases 1 and 2 of Insight 46 (providing a third data time point) and 500 additional members of the NSHD who have not previously participated in Insight 46. DISCUSSION: The NSHD is the oldest and longest continuously running British birth cohort. Members of the NSHD are now at a critical point in their lives for us to investigate successful ageing and key age-related brain morbidities. Data collected from Insight 46 have the potential to greatly contribute to and impact the field of healthy ageing and dementia by combining unique life course data with longitudinal multiparametric clinical, imaging, and biomarker measurements. Further protocol enhancements are planned, including in-home sleep measurements and the engagement of participants through remote online cognitive testing. Data collected are and will continue to be made available to the scientific community.

Timing of physical activity across adulthood on later-life cognition: 30 years follow-up in the 1946 British birth cohort.

BACKGROUND: To assess how timing, frequency and maintenance of being physically active, spanning over 30 years in adulthood, is associated with later-life cognitive function. METHODS: Participants (n=1417, 53% female) were from the prospective longitudinal cohort study, 1946 British birth cohort. Participation in leisure time physical activity was reported five times between ages 36 and 69, categorised into: not active (no participation in physical activity/month); moderately active (participated 1-4 times/month); most active (participated 5 or more times/month). Cognition at age 69 was assessed by tests of cognitive state (Addenbrooke's Cognitive Examination-III), verbal memory (word learning test) and processing speed (visual search speed). RESULTS: Being physically active, at all assessments in adulthood, was associated with higher cognition at age 69. For cognitive state and verbal memory, the effect sizes were similar across all adult ages, and between those who were moderately and most physically active. The strongest association was between sustained cumulative physical activity and later-life cognitive state, in a dose-response manner. Adjusting for childhood cognition, childhood socioeconomic position and education largely attenuated these associations but results mainly remained significant at the 5% level. CONCLUSIONS: Being physically active at any time in adulthood, and to any extent, is linked with higher later-life cognitive state, but lifelong maintenance of physical activity was most optimal. These relationships were partly explained by childhood cognition and education, but independent of cardiovascular and mental health and APOE-E4, suggestive of the importance of education on the lifelong impacts of physical activity.

Association between carotid atherosclerosis and brain activation patterns during the Stroop task in older adults: An fNIRS investigation.

There is an increasing body of evidence suggesting that vascular disease could contribute to cognitive decline and overt dementia. Of particular interest is atherosclerosis, as it is not only associated with dementia, but could be a potential mechanism through which cardiovascular disease directly impacts brain health. In this work, we evaluated the differences in functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS)-based measures of brain activation, task performance, and the change in central hemodynamics (mean arterial pressure (MAP) and heart rate (HR)) during a Stroop color-word task in individuals with atherosclerosis, defined as bilateral carotid plaques (n = 33) and healthy age-matched controls (n = 33). In the healthy control group, the left prefrontal cortex (LPFC) was the only region showing evidence of activation when comparing the incongruous with the nominal Stroop test. A smaller extent of brain activation was observed in the Plaque group compared with the healthy controls (1) globally, as measured by oxygenated hemoglobin (p = 0.036) and (2) in the LPFC (p = 0.02) and left sensorimotor cortices (LMC)(p = 0.008) as measured by deoxygenated hemoglobin. There were no significant differences in HR, MAP, or task performance (both in terms of the time required to complete the task and number of errors made) between Plaque and control groups. These results suggest that carotid atherosclerosis is associated with altered functional brain activation patterns despite no evidence of impaired performance of the Stroop task or central hemodynamic changes.

Population-based blood screening for preclinical Alzheimer's disease in a British birth cohort at age 70.

Alzheimer's disease has a preclinical stage when cerebral amyloid-ß deposition occurs before symptoms emerge, and when amyloid-ß-targeted therapies may have maximum benefits. Existing amyloid-ß status measurement techniques, including amyloid PET and CSF testing, are difficult to deploy at scale, so blood biomarkers are increasingly considered for screening. We compared three different blood-based techniques-liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry measures of plasma amyloid-ß, and single molecule array (Simoa) measures of plasma amyloid-ß and phospho-tau181-to detect cortical 18F-florbetapir amyloid PET positivity (defined as a standardized uptake value ratio of >0.61 between a predefined cortical region of interest and eroded subcortical white matter) in dementia-free members of Insight 46, a substudy of the population-based British 1946 birth cohort. We used logistic regression models with blood biomarkers as predictors of amyloid PET status, with or without age, sex and APOE ε4 carrier status as covariates. We generated receiver operating characteristics curves and quantified areas under the curves to compare the concordance of the different blood tests with amyloid PET. We determined blood test cut-off points using Youden's index, then estimated numbers needed to screen to obtain 100 amyloid PET-positive individuals. Of the 502 individuals assessed, 441 dementia-free individuals with complete data were included; 82 (18.6%) were amyloid PET-positive. The area under the curve for amyloid PET status using a base model comprising age, sex and APOE ε4 carrier status was 0.695 (95% confidence interval: 0.628-0.762). The two best-performing Simoa plasma biomarkers were amyloid-ß42/40 (0.620; 0.548-0.691) and phospho-tau181 (0.707; 0.646-0.768), but neither outperformed the base model. Mass spectrometry plasma measures performed significantly better than any other measure (amyloid-ß1-42/1-40: 0.817; 0.770-0.864 and amyloid-ß composite: 0.820; 0.775-0.866). At a cut-off point of 0.095, mass spectrometry measures of amyloid-ß1-42/1-40 detected amyloid PET positivity with 86.6% sensitivity and 71.9% specificity. Without screening, to obtain 100 PET-positive individuals from a population with similar amyloid PET positivity prevalence to Insight 46, 543 PET scans would need to be performed. Screening using age, sex and APOE ε4 status would require 940 individuals, of whom 266 would proceed to scan. Using mass spectrometry amyloid-ß1-42/1-40 alone would reduce these numbers to 623 individuals and 243 individuals, respectively. Across a theoretical range of amyloid PET positivity prevalence of 10-50%, mass spectrometry measures of amyloid-ß1-42/1-40 would consistently reduce the numbers proceeding to scans, with greater cost savings demonstrated at lower prevalence.

Subjective cognitive complaints at age 70: associations with amyloid and mental health.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate subjective cognitive decline (SCD) in relation to ß-amyloid pathology and to test for associations with anxiety, depression, objective cognition and family history of dementia in the Insight 46 study. METHODS: Cognitively unimpaired ~70-year-old participants, all born in the same week in 1946 (n=460, 49% female, 18% amyloid-positive), underwent assessments including the SCD-Questionnaire (MyCog). MyCog scores were evaluated with respect to 18F-Florbetapir-PET amyloid status (positive/negative). Associations with anxiety, depression, objective cognition (measured by the Preclinical Alzheimer Cognitive Composite, PACC) and family history of dementia were also investigated. The informant's perspective on SCD was evaluated in relation to MyCog score. RESULTS: Anxiety (mean (SD) trait anxiety score: 4.4 (3.9)) was associated with higher MyCog scores, especially in women. MyCog scores were higher in amyloid-positive compared with amyloid-negative individuals (adjusted means (95% CIs): 5.3 (4.4 to 6.1) vs 4.3 (3.9 to 4.7), p=0.044), after accounting for differences in anxiety. PACC (mean (SD) -0.05 (0.68)) and family history of dementia (prevalence: 23.9%) were not independently associated with MyCog scores. The informant's perception of SCD was generally in accordance with that of the participant. CONCLUSIONS: This cross-sectional study demonstrates that symptoms of SCD are associated with both ß-amyloid pathology, and more consistently, trait anxiety in a population-based cohort of older adults, at an age when those who are destined to develop dementia are still likely to be some years away from symptoms. This highlights the necessity of considering anxiety symptoms when assessing Alzheimer's disease pathology and SCD.

Grip strength from midlife as an indicator of later-life brain health and cognition: evidence from a British birth cohort.

BACKGROUND: Grip strength is an indicator of physical function with potential predictive value for health in ageing populations. We assessed whether trends in grip strength from midlife predicted later-life brain health and cognition. METHODS: 446 participants in an ongoing British birth cohort study, the National Survey of Health and Development (NSHD), had their maximum grip strength measured at ages 53, 60-64, and 69, and subsequently underwent neuroimaging as part of a neuroscience sub-study, referred to as "Insight 46", at age 69-71. A group-based trajectory model identified latent groups of individuals in the whole NSHD cohort with below- or above-average grip strength over time, plus a reference group. Group assignment, plus standardised grip strength levels and change from midlife were each related to measures of whole-brain volume (WBV) and white matter hyperintensity volume (WMHV), plus several cognitive tests. Models were adjusted for sex, body size, head size (where appropriate), sociodemographics, and behavioural and vascular risk factors. RESULTS: Lower grip strength from midlife was associated with smaller WBV and lower matrix reasoning scores at age 69-71, with findings consistent between analysis of individual time points and analysis of trajectory groups. There was little evidence of an association between grip strength and other cognitive test scores. Although greater declines in grip strength showed a weak association with higher WMHV at age 69-71, trends in the opposite direction were seen at individual time points with higher grip strength at ages 60-64, and 69 associated with higher WMHV. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides preliminary evidence that maximum grip strength may have value in predicting brain health. Future work should assess to what extent age-related declines in grip strength from midlife reflect concurrent changes in brain structure.

Is association of preterm birth with cognitive-neurophysiological impairments and ADHD symptoms consistent with a causal inference or due to familial confounds?

BACKGROUND: Preterm birth is associated with an increased risk for cognitive-neurophysiological impairments and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Whether the associations are due to the preterm birth insult per se, or due to other risk factors that characterise families with preterm-born children, is largely unknown. METHODS: We employed a within-sibling comparison design, using cognitive-performance and event-related potential (ERP) measures from 104 preterm-born adolescents and 104 of their term-born siblings. Analyses focused on ADHD symptoms and cognitive and ERP measures from a cued continuous performance test, an arrow flanker task and a reaction time task. RESULTS: Within-sibling analyses showed that preterm birth was significantly associated with increased ADHD symptoms (ß = 0.32, p = 0.01, 95% CI 0.05 to 0.58) and specific cognitive-ERP impairments, such as IQ (ß = -0.20, p = 0.02, 95% CI -0.40 to -0.01), preparation-vigilance measures and measures of error processing (ranging from ß = 0.71, -0.35). There was a negligible within-sibling association between preterm birth with executive control measures of inhibition (NoGo-P3, ß = -0.07, p = 0.45, 95% CI -0.33 to 0.15) or verbal working memory (digit span backward, ß = -0.05, p = 0.63, 95% CI -0.30 to 0.18). CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that the relationship between preterm birth with ADHD symptoms and specific cognitive-neurophysiological impairments (IQ, preparation-vigilance and error processing) is independent of family-level risk and consistent with a causal inference. In contrast, our results suggest that previously observed associations between preterm birth with executive control processes of inhibition and working memory are instead linked to background characteristics of families with a preterm-born child rather than preterm birth insult per se. These findings suggest that interventions need to target both preterm-birth specific and family-level risk factors.

The effect of mid-life insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes on older-age cognitive state: the explanatory role of early-life advantage.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: Type 2 diabetes, hyperglycaemia and insulin resistance are associated with cognitive impairment and dementia, but causal inference studies using Mendelian randomisation do not confirm this. We hypothesised that early-life cognition and social/educational advantage may confound the relationship. METHODS: From the population-based British 1946 birth cohort, a maximum number of 1780 participants had metabolic variables (type 2 diabetes, insulin resistance [HOMA2-IR] and HbA1c) assessed at age 60-64 years, and cognitive state (Addenbrooke's Cognitive Examination III [ACE-III]) and verbal memory assessed at age 69 years. Earlier-life measures included socioeconomic position (SEP), cognition at age 8 years and educational attainment. Polygenic risk scores (PRSs) for type 2 diabetes were calculated. We first used a PRS approach with multivariable linear regression to estimate associations between PRSs and metabolic traits and later-life cognitive state. Second, using a path model approach, we estimated the interrelationships between earlier-life measures, features of mid-life type 2 diabetes and cognitive state at age 69 years. All models were adjusted for sex. RESULTS: The externally weighted PRS for type 2 diabetes was associated with mid-life metabolic traits (e.g. HOMA2-IR ß = 0.08 [95% CI 0.02, 0.16]), but not with ACE-III (ß = 0.04 [-0.02, 0.90]) or other cognitive outcomes. While there was an association between HOMA2-IR and subsequent ACE-III (ß = -0.09 [-0.15, -0.03]), path modelling showed no direct effect (ß = -0.01 [-0.06, 0.03]) after accounting for the association between childhood SEP and education with HOMA2-IR. The same pattern was observed for later-life verbal memory. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: Associations between type 2 diabetes and mid-life metabolic traits with subsequent cognitive state do not appear causal, and instead they may be explained by SEP in early life, childhood cognition and educational attainment. Therefore, glucose-lowering medication may be unlikely to combat cognitive impairment in older age.

Longitudinal associations of affective symptoms with mid-life cognitive function: evidence from a British birth cohort.

BACKGROUND: Affective disorders are associated with poorer cognition in older adults; however, whether this association can already be observed in mid-life remains unclear. AIMS: To investigate the effects of affective symptoms over a period of 30 years on mid-life cognitive function. First, we explored whether timing (sensitive period) or persistence (accumulation) of affective symptoms predicted cognitive function. Second, we tested how different longitudinal trajectories of affective symptoms were associated with cognitive function. METHOD: The study used data from the National Child Development Study. Memory, verbal fluency, information processing speed and accuracy were measured at age 50. Affective symptoms were measured at ages 23, 33, 42 and 50 and used to derive longitudinal trajectories. A structured modelling approach compared a set of nested models in order to test accumulation versus sensitive period hypotheses. Linear regressions and structural equation modelling were used to test for longitudinal associations of affective symptoms with cognitive function. RESULTS: Accumulation of affective symptoms was found to be the best fit for the data, with persistent affective symptoms being associated with poorer immediate memory (b = -0.07, s.e. = 0.03, P = 0.01), delayed memory (b = -0.13, s.e. = 0.04, P < 0.001) and information processing accuracy (b = 0.18, s.e. = 0.08, P = 0.03), but not with information processing speed (b = 3.15, s.e. = 1.89, P = 0.10). Longitudinal trajectories of repeated affective symptoms were associated with poorer memory, verbal fluency and information processing accuracy. CONCLUSIONS: Persistent affective symptoms can affect cognitive function in mid-life. Effective management of affective disorders to prevent recurrence may reduce risk of poor cognitive outcomes and promote healthy cognitive ageing. DECLARATION OF INTEREST: None.

Altered EEG spectral power during rest and cognitive performance: a comparison of preterm-born adolescents to adolescents with ADHD.

Preterm birth has been associated with an increased risk for ADHD-like behavioural symptoms and cognitive impairments. However, direct comparisons across ADHD and preterm-born samples on neurophysiological measures are limited. The aim of this analysis was to test whether quantitative EEG (QEEG) measures identify differences or similarities in preterm-born adolescents, compared to term-born adolescents with and without ADHD, during resting-state and cognitive task conditions. We directly compared QEEG activity between 186 preterm-born adolescents, 69 term-born adolescents with ADHD and 135 term-born control adolescents during an eyes-open resting-state condition (EO), which previously discriminated between the adolescents with ADHD and controls, and during a cued continuous performance task (CPT-OX). Absolute delta power was the only frequency range to demonstrate a significant group-by-condition interaction. The preterm group, like the ADHD group, displayed significantly higher delta power during EO, compared to the control group. In line with these findings, parent-rated ADHD symptoms in the preterm group were significantly correlated with delta power during rest. While the preterm and control groups did not differ with regard to absolute delta power during CPT-OX, the ADHD group showed significantly higher absolute delta power compared to both groups. Our results provide evidence for overlapping excess in the absolute delta range in preterm-born adolescents and term-born adolescents with ADHD during rest. During CPT-OX, preterm-born adolescents resembled controls. Increased delta power during rest may be a potential general marker of brain trauma, pathology or neurotransmitter disturbances.

Sex-Dependent Effects of Cardiometabolic Health and APOE4 on Brain Age: A Longitudinal Cohort Study.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The aging population is growing faster than all other demographic strata. With older age comes a greater risk of health conditions such as obesity and high blood pressure (BP). These cardiometabolic risk factors (CMRs) exhibit prominent sex differences in midlife and aging, yet their influence on brain health in females vs males is largely unexplored. In this study, we investigated sex differences in relationships between BP, body mass index (BMI), and brain age over time and tested for interactions with APOE ε4 genotype (APOE4), a known genetic risk factor of Alzheimer disease. METHODS: The sample included participants from 2 United Kingdom-based longitudinal birth cohorts, the Lothian Birth Cohort (1936) and Insight 46 (1946). Participants with MRI data from at least 1 time point were included to evaluate sex differences in associations between CMRs and brain age. The open-access software package brainageR 2.1 was used to estimate brain age for each participant. Linear mixed-effects models were used to assess the relationships between brain age, BMI, BP, and APOE4 status (i.e., carrier vs noncarrier) in males and females over time. RESULTS: The combined sample comprised 1,120 participants (48% female) with a mean age (SD) of 73 (0.72) years in the Lothian Birth Cohort and 71 (0.68) years in Insight 46 at the time point 1 assessment. Approximately 30% of participants were APOE4 carriers. Higher systolic and diastolic BP was significantly associated with older brain age in females only (ß = 0.43-0.56, p < 0.05). Among males, higher BMI was associated with older brain age across time points and APOE4 groups (ß = 0.72-0.77, p < 0.05). In females, higher BMI was linked to older brain age among APOE4 noncarriers (ß = 0.68-0.99, p < 0.05), whereas higher BMI was linked to younger brain age among carriers, particularly at the last time point (ß = -1.75, p < 0.05). DISCUSSION: This study indicates sex-dependent and time-dependent relationships between CMRs, APOE4 status, and brain age. Our findings highlight the necessity of sex-stratified analyses to elucidate the role of CMRs in individual aging trajectories, providing a basis for developing personalized preventive interventions.

A comprehensive assessment of age at menopause with well-characterized cognition at 70 years: A population-based British birth cohort.

OBJECTIVES: Associations between age at menopause and cognition post-menopause are examined to determine whether relationships are stronger for certain cognitive domains. STUDY DESIGN: Women from the Medical Research Council National Survey of Health and Development and its neuroscience sub-study, Insight 46, were included if they had known age at menopause (self-reported via questionnaire) and complete cognitive outcome data at age 69 (n = 746) or at Insight 46 wave I (n = 197). Multivariable linear regression analyses adjusting for life course confounders were run; interactions with menopause type (natural/surgical) and APOE-ε4 status were examined; and the potential contribution of hormone therapy was assessed. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Cognitive measures were standardized Addenbrooke's Cognitive Examination - third edition total and sub-domain scores at age 69 (whole cohort) and Preclinical Alzheimer's Cognitive Composite total and sub-test scores at age ~70 (Insight 46). RESULTS: Older age at menopause was associated with better performance across all outcomes, most strongly for the Addenbrooke's Cognitive Examination memory and visuospatial function sub-domains, and the Preclinical Alzheimer's Cognitive Composite digit-symbol substitution test and face-name associative memory examination sub-tests. Adjusting for early-life factors attenuated all effect estimates, driven by childhood cognition, and accounting for menopause type revealed negative confounding for some outcomes. No significant interactions with menopause type or APOE-ε4 status were detected. Further adjustment for hormone therapy did not meaningfully alter the estimated effects. CONCLUSIONS: Older age at menopause is associated with better later-life cognitive performance, particularly for visual processing and associative learning and memory domains. Childhood cognition was an important contributor.

Adulthood cognitive trajectories over 26 years and brain health at 70 years of age: findings from the 1946 British Birth Cohort.

Few studies can address how adulthood cognitive trajectories relate to brain health in 70-year-olds. Participants (n = 468, 49% female) from the 1946 British birth cohort underwent 18F-Florbetapir PET/MRI. Cognitive function was measured in childhood (age 8 years) and across adulthood (ages 43, 53, 60-64 and 69 years) and was examined in relation to brain health markers of ß-amyloid (Aß) status, whole brain and hippocampal volume, and white matter hyperintensity volume (WMHV). Taking into account key contributors of adult cognitive decline including childhood cognition, those with greater Aß and WMHV at age 70 years had greater decline in word-list learning memory in the preceding 26 years, particularly after age 60. In contrast, those with smaller whole brain and hippocampal volume at age 70 years had greater decline in processing search speed, subtly manifest from age 50 years. Subtle changes in memory and processing speed spanning 26 years of adulthood were associated with markers of brain health at 70 years of age, consistent with detectable prodromal cognitive effects in early older age.

Neuroimaging, clinical and life course correlates of normal-appearing white matter integrity in 70-year-olds.

We investigate associations between normal-appearing white matter microstructural integrity in cognitively normal ∼70-year-olds and concurrently measured brain health and cognition, demographics, genetics and life course cardiovascular health. Participants born in the same week in March 1946 (British 1946 birth cohort) underwent PET-MRI around age 70. Mean standardized normal-appearing white matter integrity metrics (fractional anisotropy, mean diffusivity, neurite density index and orientation dispersion index) were derived from diffusion MRI. Linear regression was used to test associations between normal-appearing white matter metrics and (i) concurrent measures, including whole brain volume, white matter hyperintensity volume, PET amyloid and cognition; (ii) the influence of demographic and genetic predictors, including sex, childhood cognition, education, socio-economic position and genetic risk for Alzheimer's disease (APOE-ɛ4); (iii) systolic and diastolic blood pressure and cardiovascular health (Framingham Heart Study Cardiovascular Risk Score) across adulthood. Sex interactions were tested. Statistical significance included false discovery rate correction (5%). Three hundred and sixty-two participants met inclusion criteria (mean age 70, 49% female). Higher white matter hyperintensity volume was associated with lower fractional anisotropy [b = -0.09 (95% confidence interval: -0.11, -0.06), P < 0.01], neurite density index [b = -0.17 (-0.22, -0.12), P < 0.01] and higher mean diffusivity [b = 0.14 (-0.10, -0.17), P < 0.01]; amyloid (in men) was associated with lower fractional anisotropy [b = -0.04 (-0.08, -0.01), P = 0.03)] and higher mean diffusivity [b = 0.06 (0.01, 0.11), P = 0.02]. Framingham Heart Study Cardiovascular Risk Score in later-life (age 69) was associated with normal-appearing white matter {lower fractional anisotropy [b = -0.06 (-0.09, -0.02) P < 0.01], neurite density index [b = -0.10 (-0.17, -0.03), P < 0.01] and higher mean diffusivity [b = 0.09 (0.04, 0.14), P < 0.01]}. Significant sex interactions (P < 0.05) emerged for midlife cardiovascular health (age 53) and normal-appearing white matter at 70: marginal effect plots demonstrated, in women only, normal-appearing white matter was associated with higher midlife Framingham Heart Study Cardiovascular Risk Score (lower fractional anisotropy and neurite density index), midlife systolic (lower fractional anisotropy, neurite density index and higher mean diffusivity) and diastolic (lower fractional anisotropy and neurite density index) blood pressure and greater blood pressure change between 43 and 53 years (lower fractional anisotropy and neurite density index), independently of white matter hyperintensity volume. In summary, poorer normal-appearing white matter microstructural integrity in ∼70-year-olds was associated with measures of cerebral small vessel disease, amyloid (in males) and later-life cardiovascular health, demonstrating how normal-appearing white matter can provide additional information to overt white matter disease. Our findings further show that greater 'midlife' cardiovascular risk and higher blood pressure were associated with poorer normal-appearing white matter microstructural integrity in females only, suggesting that women's brains may be more susceptible to the effects of midlife blood pressure and cardiovascular health.

Sex-related differences in whole brain volumes at age 70 in association with hyperglycemia during adult life.

Longitudinal studies of the relationship between hyperglycemia and brain health are rare and there is limited information on sex differences in associations. We investigated whether glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c) measured at ages of 53, 60-64 and 69 years, and cumulative glycemic index (CGI), a measure of cumulative glycemic burden, were associated with metrics of brain health in later life. Participants were from Insight 46, a substudy of the Medical Research Council National Survey of Health and Development (NSHD) who undertook volumetric MRI, florbetapir amyloid-PET imaging and cognitive assessments at ages of 69-71. Analyses were performed using linear and logistic regression as appropriate, with adjustment for potential confounders. We observed a sex interaction between HbA1c and whole brain volume (WBV) at all 3 time points. Following stratification of our sample, we observed that HbA1c at all ages, and CGI were positively associated with lower WBV exclusively in females. HbA1c (or CGI) was not associated with amyloid status, white matter hyperintensities (WMHs), hippocampal volumes (HV) or cognitive outcomes in either sex. Higher HbA1c in adulthood is associated with smaller WBV at 69-71 years in females but not in males. This suggests that there may be preferential target organ damage in the brain for females with hyperglycemia.

Life course, genetic, and neuropathological associations with brain age in the 1946 British Birth Cohort: a population-based study.

BACKGROUND: A neuroimaging-based biomarker termed the brain age is thought to reflect variability in the brain's ageing process and predict longevity. Using Insight 46, a unique narrow-age birth cohort, we aimed to examine potential drivers and correlates of brain age. METHODS: Participants, born in a single week in 1946 in mainland Britain, have had 24 prospective waves of data collection to date, including MRI and amyloid PET imaging at approximately 70 years old. Using MRI data from a previously defined selection of this cohort, we derived brain-predicted age from an established machine-learning model (trained on 2001 healthy adults aged 18-90 years); subtracting this from chronological age (at time of assessment) gave the brain-predicted age difference (brain-PAD). We tested associations with data from early life, midlife, and late life, as well as rates of MRI-derived brain atrophy. FINDINGS: Between May 28, 2015, and Jan 10, 2018, 502 individuals were assessed as part of Insight 46. We included 456 participants (225 female), with a mean chronological age of 70·7 years (SD 0·7; range 69·2 to 71·9). The mean brain-predicted age was 67·9 years (8·2, 46·3 to 94·3). Female sex was associated with a 5·4-year (95% CI 4·1 to 6·8) younger brain-PAD than male sex. An increase in brain-PAD was associated with increased cardiovascular risk at age 36 years (ß=2·3 [95% CI 1·5 to 3·0]) and 69 years (ß=2·6 [1·9 to 3·3]); increased cerebrovascular disease burden (1·9 [1·3 to 2·6]); lower cognitive performance (-1·3 [-2·4 to -0·2]); and increased serum neurofilament light concentration (1·2 [0·6 to 1·9]). Higher brain-PAD was associated with future hippocampal atrophy over the subsequent 2 years (0·003 mL/year [0·000 to 0·006] per 5-year increment in brain-PAD). Early-life factors did not relate to brain-PAD. Combining 12 metrics in a hierarchical partitioning model explained 33% of the variance in brain-PAD. INTERPRETATION: Brain-PAD was associated with cardiovascular risk, and imaging and biochemical markers of neurodegeneration. These findings support brain-PAD as an integrative summary metric of brain health, reflecting multiple contributions to pathological brain ageing, and which might have prognostic utility. FUNDING: Alzheimer's Research UK, Medical Research Council Dementia Platforms UK, Selfridges Group Foundation, Wolfson Foundation, Wellcome Trust, Brain Research UK, Alzheimer's Association.