Ikaros prevents autoimmunity by controlling anergy and Toll-like receptor signaling in B cells.

The establishment of a diverse B cell antigen receptor (BCR) repertoire by V(D)J recombination also generates autoreactive B cells. Anergy is one tolerance mechanism; it renders autoreactive B cells insensitive to stimulation by self-antigen, whereas Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling can reactivate anergic B cells. Here, we describe a critical role of the transcription factor Ikaros in controlling BCR anergy and TLR signaling. Mice with specific deletion of Ikaros in mature B cells developed systemic autoimmunity. Ikaros regulated many anergy-associated genes, including Zfp318, which is implicated in the attenuation of BCR responsiveness by promoting immunoglobulin D expression in anergic B cells. TLR signaling was hyperactive in Ikaros-deficient B cells, which failed to upregulate feedback inhibitors of the MyD88-nuclear factor κB signaling pathway. Systemic inflammation was lost on expression of a non-self-reactive BCR or loss of MyD88 in Ikaros-deficient B cells. Thus, Ikaros acts as a guardian preventing autoimmunity by promoting BCR anergy and restraining TLR signaling.

Essential role for the transcription factor Bhlhe41 in regulating the development, self-renewal and BCR repertoire of B-1a cells.

Innate-like B-1a cells provide a first line of defense against pathogens, yet little is known about their transcriptional control. Here we identified an essential role for the transcription factor Bhlhe41, with a lesser contribution by Bhlhe40, in controlling B-1a cell differentiation. Bhlhe41-/-Bhlhe40-/- B-1a cells were present at much lower abundance than were their wild-type counterparts. Mutant B-1a cells exhibited an abnormal cell-surface phenotype and altered B cell receptor (BCR) repertoire exemplified by loss of the phosphatidylcholine-specific VH12Vκ4 BCR. Expression of a pre-rearranged VH12Vκ4 BCR failed to 'rescue' the mutant phenotype and revealed enhanced proliferation accompanied by increased cell death. Bhlhe41 directly repressed the expression of cell-cycle regulators and inhibitors of BCR signaling while enabling pro-survival cytokine signaling. Thus, Bhlhe41 controls the development, BCR repertoire and self-renewal of B-1a cells.

Multifunctional role of the transcription factor Blimp-1 in coordinating plasma cell differentiation.

The transcription factor Blimp-1 is necessary for the generation of plasma cells. Here we studied its functions in plasmablast differentiation by identifying regulated Blimp-1 target genes. Blimp-1 promoted the migration and adhesion of plasmablasts. It directly repressed genes encoding several transcription factors and Aicda (which encodes the cytidine deaminase AID) and thus silenced B cell-specific gene expression, antigen presentation and class-switch recombination in plasmablasts. It directly activated genes, which led to increased expression of the plasma cell regulator IRF4 and proteins involved in immunoglobulin secretion. Blimp-1 induced the transcription of immunoglobulin genes by controlling the 3' enhancers of the loci encoding the immunoglobulin heavy chain (Igh) and κ-light chain (Igk) and, furthermore, regulated the post-transcriptional expression switch from the membrane-bound form of the immunoglobulin heavy chain to its secreted form by activating Ell2 (which encodes the transcription-elongation factor ELL2). Notably, Blimp-1 recruited chromatin-remodeling and histone-modifying complexes to regulate its target genes. Hence, many essential functions of plasma cells are under the control of Blimp-1.

Enhancers of the PAIR4 regulatory module promote distal VH gene recombination at the Igh locus.

While extended loop extrusion across the entire Igh locus controls VH -DJH recombination, local regulatory sequences, such as the PAIR elements, may also activate VH gene recombination in pro-B-cells. Here, we show that PAIR-associated VH 8 genes contain a conserved putative regulatory element (V8E) in their downstream sequences. To investigate the function of PAIR4 and its V8.7E, we deleted 890 kb containing all 14 PAIRs in the Igh 5' region, which reduced distal VH gene recombination over a 100-kb distance on either side of the deletion. Reconstitution by insertion of PAIR4-V8.7E strongly activated distal VH gene recombination. PAIR4 alone resulted in lower induction of recombination, indicating that PAIR4 and V8.7E function as one regulatory unit. The pro-B-cell-specific activity of PAIR4 depends on CTCF, as mutation of its CTCF-binding site led to sustained PAIR4 activity in pre-B and immature B-cells and to PAIR4 activation in T-cells. Notably, insertion of V8.8E was sufficient to activate VH gene recombination. Hence, enhancers of the PAIR4-V8.7E module and V8.8E element activate distal VH gene recombination and thus contribute to the diversification of the BCR repertoire in the context of loop extrusion.

The PAX5-JAK2 translocation acts as dual-hit mutation that promotes aggressive B-cell leukemia via nuclear STAT5 activation.

While PAX5 is an important tumor suppressor gene in B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL), it is also involved in oncogenic translocations coding for diverse PAX5 fusion proteins. PAX5-JAK2 encodes a protein consisting of the PAX5 DNA-binding region fused to the constitutively active JAK2 kinase domain. Here, we studied the oncogenic function of the PAX5-JAK2 fusion protein in a mouse model expressing it from the endogenous Pax5 locus, resulting in inactivation of one of the two Pax5 alleles. Pax5Jak2/+ mice rapidly developed an aggressive B-ALL in the absence of another cooperating exogenous gene mutation. The DNA-binding function and kinase activity of Pax5-Jak2 as well as IL-7 signaling contributed to leukemia development. Interestingly, all Pax5Jak2/+ tumors lost the remaining wild-type Pax5 allele, allowing efficient DNA-binding of Pax5-Jak2. While we could not find evidence for a nuclear role of Pax5-Jak2 as an epigenetic regulator, high levels of active phosphorylated STAT5 and increased expression of STAT5 target genes were seen in Pax5Jak2/+ B-ALL tumors, implying that nuclear Pax5-Jak2 phosphorylates STAT5. Together, these data reveal Pax5-Jak2 as an important nuclear driver of leukemogenesis by maintaining phosphorylated STAT5 levels in the nucleus.

Stage-specific control of early B cell development by the transcription factor Ikaros.

The transcription factor Ikaros is an essential regulator of lymphopoiesis. Here we studied its B cell-specific function by conditional inactivation of the gene encoding Ikaros (Ikzf1) in pro-B cells. B cell development was arrested at an aberrant 'pro-B cell' stage characterized by increased cell adhesion and loss of signaling via the pre-B cell signaling complex (pre-BCR). Ikaros activated genes encoding signal transducers of the pre-BCR and repressed genes involved in the downregulation of pre-BCR signaling and upregulation of the integrin signaling pathway. Unexpectedly, derepression of expression of the transcription factor Aiolos did not compensate for the loss of Ikaros in pro-B cells. Ikaros induced or suppressed active chromatin at regulatory elements of activated or repressed target genes. Notably, binding of Ikaros and expression of its target genes were dynamically regulated at distinct stages of early B lymphopoiesis.

Wapl repression by Pax5 promotes V gene recombination by Igh loop extrusion.

Nuclear processes, such as V(D)J recombination, are orchestrated by the three-dimensional organization of chromosomes at multiple levels, including compartments1 and topologically associated domains (TADs)2,3 consisting of chromatin loops4. TADs are formed by chromatin-loop extrusion5-7, which depends on the loop-extrusion function of the ring-shaped cohesin complex8-12. Conversely, the cohesin-release factor Wapl13,14 restricts loop extension10,15. The generation of a diverse antibody repertoire, providing humoral immunity to pathogens, requires the participation of all V genes in V(D)J recombination16, which depends on contraction of the 2.8-Mb-long immunoglobulin heavy chain (Igh) locus by Pax517,18. However, how Pax5 controls Igh contraction in pro-B cells remains unknown. Here we demonstrate that locus contraction is caused by loop extrusion across the entire Igh locus. Notably, the expression of Wapl is repressed by Pax5 specifically in pro-B and pre-B cells, facilitating extended loop extrusion by increasing the residence time of cohesin on chromatin. Pax5 mediates the transcriptional repression of Wapl through a single Pax5-binding site by recruiting the polycomb repressive complex 2 to induce bivalent chromatin at the Wapl promoter. Reduced Wapl expression causes global alterations in the chromosome architecture, indicating that the potential to recombine all V genes entails structural changes of the entire genome in pro-B cells.

Precocious expression of Blimp1 in B cells causes autoimmune disease with increased self-reactive plasma cells.

The transcription factor Blimp1 is not only an essential regulator of plasma cells, but also a risk factor for the development of autoimmune disease in humans. Here, we demonstrate in the mouse that the Prdm1 (Blimp1) gene was partially activated at the chromatin and transcription level in early B cell development, although mature Prdm1 mRNA did not accumulate due to posttranscriptional regulation. By analyzing a mouse model that facilitated ectopic Blimp1 protein expression throughout B lymphopoiesis, we could demonstrate that Blimp1 impaired B cell development by interfering with the B cell gene expression program, while leading to an increased abundance of plasma cells by promoting premature plasmablast differentiation of immature and mature B cells. With progressing age, these mice developed an autoimmune disease characterized by the presence of autoantibodies and glomerulonephritis. Hence, these data identified ectopic Blimp1 expression as a novel mechanism, through which Blimp1 can act as a risk factor in the development of autoimmune disease.

Molecular role of the PAX5-ETV6 oncoprotein in promoting B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia.

PAX5 is a tumor suppressor in B-ALL, while the role of PAX5 fusion proteins in B-ALL development is largely unknown. Here, we studied the function of PAX5-ETV6 and PAX5-FOXP1 in mice expressing these proteins from the Pax5 locus. Both proteins arrested B-lymphopoiesis at the pro-B to pre-B-cell transition and, contrary to their proposed dominant-negative role, did not interfere with the expression of most regulated Pax5 target genes. Pax5-Etv6, but not Pax5-Foxp1, cooperated with loss of the Cdkna2a/b tumor suppressors in promoting B-ALL development. Regulated Pax5-Etv6 target genes identified in these B-ALLs encode proteins implicated in pre-B-cell receptor (BCR) signaling and migration/adhesion, which could contribute to the proliferation, survival, and tissue infiltration of leukemic B cells. Together with similar observations made in human PAX5-ETV6+ B-ALLs, these data identified PAX5-ETV6 as a potent oncoprotein that drives B-cell leukemia development.

The distal V(H) gene cluster of the Igh locus contains distinct regulatory elements with Pax5 transcription factor-dependent activity in pro-B cells.

V(H)-DJ(H) recombination of the immunoglobulin heavy chain (Igh) locus is temporally and spatially controlled during early B cell development, and yet no regulatory elements other than the V(H) gene promoters have been identified throughout the entire V(H) gene cluster. Here, we discovered regulatory sequences that are interspersed in the distal V(H) gene region. These conserved repeat elements were characterized by the presence of Pax5 transcription factor-dependent active chromatin by binding of the regulators Pax5, E2A, CTCF, and Rad21, as well as by Pax5-dependent antisense transcription in pro-B cells. The Pax5-activated intergenic repeat (PAIR) elements were no longer bound by Pax5 in pre-B and B cells consistent with the loss of antisense transcription, whereas E2A and CTCF interacted with PAIR elements throughout early B cell development. The pro-B cell-specific and Pax5-dependent activity of the PAIR elements suggests that they are involved in the regulation of distal V(H)-DJ(H) recombination at the Igh locus.

Wapl is an essential regulator of chromatin structure and chromosome segregation.

Mammalian genomes contain several billion base pairs of DNA that are packaged in chromatin fibres. At selected gene loci, cohesin complexes have been proposed to arrange these fibres into higher-order structures, but how important this function is for determining overall chromosome architecture and how the process is regulated are not well understood. Using conditional mutagenesis in the mouse, here we show that depletion of the cohesin-associated protein Wapl stably locks cohesin on DNA, leads to clustering of cohesin in axial structures, and causes chromatin condensation in interphase chromosomes. These findings reveal that the stability of cohesin-DNA interactions is an important determinant of chromatin structure, and indicate that cohesin has an architectural role in interphase chromosome territories. Furthermore, we show that regulation of cohesin-DNA interactions by Wapl is important for embryonic development, expression of genes such as c-myc (also known as Myc), and cell cycle progression. In mitosis, Wapl-mediated release of cohesin from DNA is essential for proper chromosome segregation and protects cohesin from cleavage by the protease separase, thus enabling mitotic exit in the presence of functional cohesin complexes.

Polycomb complexes act redundantly to repress genomic repeats and genes.

Polycomb complexes establish chromatin modifications for maintaining gene repression and are essential for embryonic development in mice. Here we use pluripotent embryonic stem (ES) cells to demonstrate an unexpected redundancy between Polycomb-repressive complex 1 (PRC1) and PRC2 during the formation of differentiated cells. ES cells lacking the function of either PRC1 or PRC2 can differentiate into cells of the three germ layers, whereas simultaneous loss of PRC1 and PRC2 abrogates differentiation. On the molecular level, the differentiation defect is caused by the derepression of a set of genes that is redundantly repressed by PRC1 and PRC2 in ES cells. Furthermore, we find that genomic repeats are Polycomb targets and show that, in the absence of Polycomb complexes, endogenous murine leukemia virus elements can mobilize. This indicates a contribution of the Polycomb group system to the defense against parasitic DNA, and a potential role of genomic repeats in Polycomb-mediated gene regulation.

AID/APOBEC-network reconstruction identifies pathways associated with survival in ovarian cancer.

BACKGROUND: Building up of pathway-/disease-relevant signatures provides a persuasive tool for understanding the functional relevance of gene alterations and gene network associations in multifactorial human diseases. Ovarian cancer is a highly complex heterogeneous malignancy in respect of tumor anatomy, tumor microenvironment including pro-/antitumor immunity and inflammation; still, it is generally treated as single disease. Thus, further approaches to investigate novel aspects of ovarian cancer pathogenesis aiming to provide a personalized strategy to clinical decision making are of high priority. Herein we assessed the contribution of the AID/APOBEC family and their associated genes given the remarkable ability of AID and APOBECs to edit DNA/RNA, and as such, providing tools for genetic and epigenetic alterations potentially leading to reprogramming of tumor cells, stroma and immune cells. RESULTS: We structured the study by three consecutive analytical modules, which include the multigene-based expression profiling in a cohort of patients with primary serous ovarian cancer using a self-created AID/APOBEC-associated gene signature, building up of multivariable survival models with high predictive accuracy and nomination of top-ranked candidate/target genes according to their prognostic impact, and systems biology-based reconstruction of the AID/APOBEC-driven disease-relevant mechanisms using transcriptomics data from ovarian cancer samples. We demonstrated that inclusion of the AID/APOBEC signature-based variables significantly improves the clinicopathological variables-based survival prognostication allowing significant patient stratification. Furthermore, several of the profiling-derived variables such as ID3, PTPRC/CD45, AID, APOBEC3G, and ID2 exceed the prognostic impact of some clinicopathological variables. We next extended the signature-/modeling-based knowledge by extracting top genes co-regulated with target molecules in ovarian cancer tissues and dissected potential networks/pathways/regulators contributing to pathomechanisms. We thereby revealed that the AID/APOBEC-related network in ovarian cancer is particularly associated with remodeling/fibrotic pathways, altered immune response, and autoimmune disorders with inflammatory background. CONCLUSIONS: The herein study is, to our knowledge, the first one linking expression of entire AID/APOBECs and interacting genes with clinical outcome with respect to survival of cancer patients. Overall, data propose a novel AID/APOBEC-derived survival model for patient risk assessment and reconstitute mapping to molecular pathways. The established study algorithm can be applied further for any biologically relevant signature and any type of diseased tissue.

The B-cell identity factor Pax5 regulates distinct transcriptional programmes in early and late B lymphopoiesis.

Pax5 controls the identity and development of B cells by repressing lineage-inappropriate genes and activating B-cell-specific genes. Here, we used genome-wide approaches to identify Pax5 target genes in pro-B and mature B cells. In these cell types, Pax5 bound to 40% of the cis-regulatory elements defined by mapping DNase I hypersensitive (DHS) sites, transcription start sites and histone modifications. Although Pax5 bound to 8000 target genes, it regulated only 4% of them in pro-B and mature B cells by inducing enhancers at activated genes and eliminating DHS sites at repressed genes. Pax5-regulated genes in pro-B cells account for 23% of all expression changes occurring between common lymphoid progenitors and committed pro-B cells, which identifies Pax5 as an important regulator of this developmental transition. Regulated Pax5 target genes minimally overlap in pro-B and mature B cells, which reflects massive expression changes between these cell types. Hence, Pax5 controls B-cell identity and function by regulating distinct target genes in early and late B lymphopoiesis.

The transcription factor Pax5 regulates its target genes by recruiting chromatin-modifying proteins in committed B cells.

Pax5 is a critical regulator of B-cell commitment. Here, we identified direct Pax5 target genes by streptavidin-mediated ChIP-chip analysis of pro-B cells expressing in vivo biotinylated Pax5. By binding to promoters and enhancers, Pax5 directly regulates the expression of multiple transcription factor, cell surface receptor and signal transducer genes. One of the newly identified enhancers was shown by transgenic analysis to confer Pax5-dependent B-cell-specific activity to the Nedd9 gene controlling B-cell trafficking. Profiling of histone modifications in Pax5-deficient and wild-type pro-B cells demonstrated that Pax5 induces active chromatin at activated target genes, while eliminating active chromatin at repressed genes in committed pro-B cells. Pax5 rapidly induces these chromatin and transcription changes by recruiting chromatin-remodelling, histone-modifying and basal transcription factor complexes to its target genes. These data provide novel insight into the regulatory network and epigenetic regulation, by which Pax5 controls B-cell commitment.

Essential role of the Pax5 C-terminal domain in controlling B cell commitment and development.

The B cell regulator Pax5 consists of multiple domains whose function we analyzed in vivo by deletion in Pax5. While B lymphopoiesis was minimally affected in mice with homozygous deletion of the octapeptide or partial homeodomain, both sequences were required for optimal B cell development. Deletion of the C-terminal regulatory domain 1 (CRD1) interfered with B cell development, while elimination of CRD2 modestly affected B-lymphopoiesis. Deletion of CRD1 and CRD2 arrested B cell development at an uncommitted pro-B cell stage. Most Pax5-regulated genes required CRD1 or both CRD1 and CRD2 for their activation or repression as these domains induced or eliminated open chromatin at Pax5-activated or Pax5-repressed genes, respectively. Co-immunoprecipitation experiments demonstrated that the activating function of CRD1 is mediated through interaction with the chromatin-remodeling BAF, H3K4-methylating Set1A-COMPASS, and H4K16-acetylating NSL complexes, while its repressing function depends on recruitment of the Sin3-HDAC and MiDAC complexes. These data provide novel molecular insight into how different Pax5 domains regulate gene expression to promote B cell commitment and development.

Igh and Igk loci use different folding principles for V gene recombination due to distinct chromosomal architectures of pro-B and pre-B cells.

Extended loop extrusion across the immunoglobulin heavy-chain (Igh) locus facilitates VH-DJH recombination following downregulation of the cohesin-release factor Wapl by Pax5, resulting in global changes in the chromosomal architecture of pro-B cells. Here, we demonstrate that chromatin looping and VK-JK recombination at the Igk locus were insensitive to Wapl upregulation in pre-B cells. Notably, the Wapl protein was expressed at a 2.2-fold higher level in pre-B cells compared with pro-B cells, which resulted in a distinct chromosomal architecture with normal loop sizes in pre-B cells. High-resolution chromosomal contact analysis of the Igk locus identified multiple internal loops, which likely juxtapose VK and JK elements to facilitate VK-JK recombination. The higher Wapl expression in Igµ-transgenic pre-B cells prevented extended loop extrusion at the Igh locus, leading to recombination of only the 6 most 3' proximal VH genes and likely to allelic exclusion of all other VH genes in pre-B cells. These results suggest that pro-B and pre-B cells with their distinct chromosomal architectures use different chromatin folding principles for V gene recombination, thereby enabling allelic exclusion at the Igh locus, when the Igk locus is recombined.

Intergenic Polycomb target sites are dynamically marked by non-coding transcription during lineage commitment.

Non-coding (nc) RNAs are involved both in recruitment of vertebrate Polycomb (PcG) proteins to chromatin, and in activation of PcG target genes. Here we investigate dynamic changes in the relationship between ncRNA transcription and recruitment of PcG proteins to chromatin during differentiation. Profiling of purified cell populations from different stages of a defined murine in vitro neural differentiation system shows that over 50% of regulated intergenic non-coding transcripts precisely correspond to PcG target sites. We designate these PcG recruiting elements as Transcribed Intergenic Polycomb (TIP) sites. The relationship between TIP transcription and PcG recruitment switches dynamically during differentiation between different states, in which transcription and PcG recruitment exclude each other, or in which both are present. Reporter assays show that transcribed TIP sites can repress a flanking gene. Knockdown experiments demonstrate that TIP ncRNAs are themselves required for repression of target genes both in cis and in trans. We propose that TIP transcription may ensure coordinated regulation of gene networks via dynamic switching and recruitment of PcG proteins both in cis and in trans during lineage commitment.

The Xbp1-regulated transcription factor Mist1 restricts antibody secretion by restraining Blimp1 expression in plasma cells.

Antibody secretion by plasma cells provides acute and long-term protection against pathogens. The high secretion potential of plasma cells depends on the unfolded protein response, which is controlled by the transcription factor Xbp1. Here, we analyzed the Xbp1-dependent gene expression program of plasma cells and identified Bhlha15 (Mist1) as the most strongly activated Xbp1 target gene. As Mist1 plays an important role in other secretory cell types, we analyzed in detail the phenotype of Mist1-deficient plasma cells in Cd23-Cre Bhlha15 fl/fl mice under steady-state condition or upon NP-KLH immunization. Under both conditions, Mist1-deficient plasma cells were 1.4-fold reduced in number and exhibited increased IgM production and antibody secretion compared to control plasma cells. At the molecular level, Mist1 regulated a largely different set of target genes compared with Xbp1. Notably, expression of the Blimp1 protein, which is known to activate immunoglobulin gene expression and to contribute to antibody secretion, was 1.3-fold upregulated in Mist1-deficient plasma cells, which led to a moderate downregulation of most Blimp1-repressed target genes in the absence of Mist1. Importantly, a 2-fold reduction of Blimp1 (Prdm1) expression was sufficient to restore the cell number and antibody expression of plasma cells in Prdm1 Gfp/+ Cd23-Cre Bhlha15 fl/fl mice to the same level seen in control mice. Together, these data indicate that Mist1 restricts antibody secretion by restraining Blimp1 expression, which likely contributes to the viability of plasma cells.

Biallelic PAX5 mutations cause hypogammaglobulinemia, sensorimotor deficits, and autism spectrum disorder.

The genetic causes of primary antibody deficiencies and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are largely unknown. Here, we report a patient with hypogammaglobulinemia and ASD who carries biallelic mutations in the transcription factor PAX5. A patient-specific Pax5 mutant mouse revealed an early B cell developmental block and impaired immune responses as the cause of hypogammaglobulinemia. Pax5 mutant mice displayed behavioral deficits in all ASD domains. The patient and the mouse model showed aberrant cerebellar foliation and severely impaired sensorimotor learning. PAX5 deficiency also caused profound hypoplasia of the substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area due to loss of GABAergic neurons, thus affecting two midbrain hubs, controlling motor function and reward processing, respectively. Heterozygous Pax5 mutant mice exhibited similar anatomic and behavioral abnormalities. Lineage tracing identified Pax5 as a crucial regulator of cerebellar morphogenesis and midbrain GABAergic neurogenesis. These findings reveal new roles of Pax5 in brain development and unravel the underlying mechanism of a novel immunological and neurodevelopmental syndrome.