Development of a Population-Level Dichotomous Indicator of Minimum Dietary Diversity as a Proxy for Micronutrient Adequacy in Adolescents Aged 10-19 Y in the United States.

BACKGROUND: Diversity is a key component of diet quality and health, but no indicator exists for adolescents under the age of 15 y. OBJECTIVES: To establish a dichotomous indicator for population-level assessment of adolescent dietary diversity as a proxy for micronutrient adequacy. METHODS: We used the probability approach to construct mean probability of adequacy (MPA) of 11 micronutrients from 2 d of 24-h dietary recall data from NHANES, 2007-2018. For each micronutrient, probability of adequacy (PA) was calculated using the best linear unbiased predictor of usual intake. Adolescent dietary diversity score (ADDS) was derived with a maximum score of 10 food groups. Generalized linear mixed models were used to examine associations between ADDS and MPA. Receiver operating characteristic analysis was used to establish a cutoff for minimum dietary diversity for adolescents (MDD-A) using an energy-adjusted logistic model with ADDS predicting MPA > 0.6. RESULTS: PA was >80% for all nutrients except vitamin C (42.1%), folate (65.7%), and calcium (23.8%). Population MPA was 79.4%, and nearly 92% of adolescents had an MPA > 0.6. ADDS was positively associated with MPA, and energy was a significant confounder. The area under the curve was >0.8 on both days with sensitivity and specificity ranging from 0.71 to 0.80. The MDD-A cutoff was calculated as 5.12 and 5.10 food groups on days 1 and 2, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: In U.S. adolescents, the best cutoff for a dichotomous indicator of dietary diversity as a proxy for micronutrient adequacy is 6 food groups in a given day. Future research could validate MDD-A and its associated cutoff for use across country contexts.

Comparison of Current World Health Organization Guidelines with Physiologically Based Serum Ferritin Thresholds for Iron Deficiency in Healthy Young Children and Nonpregnant Women Using Data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.

BACKGROUND: Current WHO serum ferritin (SF) thresholds for iron deficiency (ID) in children (<12 µg/L) and women (<15 µg/L) are derived from expert opinion based on radiometric assays in use decades ago. Using a contemporary immunoturbidimetry assay, higher thresholds (children, <20 µg/L; women, <25 µg/L) were identified from physiologically based analyses. OBJECTIVE: We examined relationships of SF measured using an immunoradiometric assay from the era of expert opinion with 2 independently measured indicators of ID, hemoglobin (Hb) and erythrocyte zinc protoporphyrin (eZnPP), using data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III, 1988-1994). The SF at which circulating Hb begins to decrease and eZnPP begins to increase provides a physiological basis for identifying the onset of iron-deficient erythropoiesis. METHODS: We analyzed NHANES III cross-sectional data from 2616 apparently healthy children, aged 12-59 mo, and 4639 apparently healthy nonpregnant women, aged 15-49 y. We used restricted cubic spline regression models to determine SF thresholds for ID. RESULTS: SF thresholds identified by Hb and eZnPP did not differ significantly in children, 21.2 µg/L (95% confidence interval: 18.5, 26.5) and 18.7 µg/L (17.9, 19.7), and, in women, were similar although significantly different, 24.8 µg/L (23.4, 26.9) and 22.5 µg/L (21.7, 23.3). CONCLUSIONS: These NHANES results suggest that physiologically based SF thresholds are higher than the thresholds from expert opinion established during the same era. SF thresholds found using physiological indicators detect the onset of iron-deficient erythropoiesis, whereas the WHO thresholds identify a later, more severe stage of ID.

The effect of interventions distributing home fortification products on infant and young child feeding (IYCF) practices: A systematic narrative review.

Interventions distributing micronutrient powders (MNPs) and small-quantity lipid-based nutrient supplements (SQ-LNS), or home fortification products (HFPs), have the potential to improve infant and young child feeding (IYCF) practices and children's nutrition. We systematically searched for studies on the effect of interventions distributing HFP on IYCF practices. We identified 12 (8 MNP, 4 SQ-LNS) studies: seven programmes with IYCF behaviour change communications (BCC) and MNP (IYCF-MNP) and one provided MNP without IYCF BCC (MNP only). Three SQ-LNS studies came from randomised trials without an IYCF component (SQ-LNS only) and one from a programme with both IYCF BCC and SfQ-LNS (IYCF-SQ-LNS). Five IYCF-MNP programmes reported positive associations with some IYCF practices-four with minimum dietary diversity, two with minimum meal frequency, four with minimum acceptable diet, and three with the initiation of complementary foods at 6 months. Two reported no association between MNP and IYCF indicators, and one reported a decline in IYCF practices during the intervention, although it also reported significant changes to the IYCF programme during the evaluation period. Two studies from interventions that distributed SQ-LNS (one from a related set of randomised controlled trials and the sole IYCF-SQ-LNS programme) reported a positive association with IYCF practices; one trial reported no change in breast milk intake with the provision of SQ-LNS and one found no association with IYCF practices. SQ-LNS and MNP can address nutrient gaps for young children in low-resource settings; our findings indicate that programmes that combine HFP with IYCF interventions may also contribute to improved IYCF practices in some settings.

Iron Deficiency in the United States: Limitations in Guidelines, Data, and Monitoring of Disparities.

Iron deficiency and the more severe sequela, iron deficiency anemia, are public health problems associated with morbidity and mortality, particularly among pregnant women and younger children. The 1998 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommendations for prevention and control of iron deficiency in the United States is old and does not reflect recent evidence but is a foundational reference for many federal, clinical, and program guidelines. Surveillance data for iron deficiency are sparse at all levels, with critical gaps for pregnant women and younger children. Anemia, iron deficiency, and iron deficiency anemia are often conflated but should not be. Clinical guidelines for anemia, iron deficiency, and iron deficiency anemia give inconsistent recommendations, causing nonsystematic assessment of iron deficiency. Screening for iron deficiency typically relies on identifying anemia, despite anemia's low sensitivity for iron deficiency. In the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, more than 70% of iron deficiency is missed among pregnant women and children by relying on hemoglobin for iron deficiency screening. To improve assessment and diagnosis and strengthen surveillance, better and more complete data and updated foundational guidance on iron deficiency and anemia are needed that consider new evidence for measuring and interpreting laboratory results. (Am J Public Health. 2022;112(S8):S826-S835. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2022.306998).

Improving Nutrition in the First 1000 Days in the United States: A Federal Perspective.

The first 1000 days begins with pregnancy and ends at the child's second birthday. Nutrition throughout the life course, and especially during the first 1000 days, supports maternal health and optimal growth and development for children. We give a high-level summary of the state of nutrition in the first 1000 days in the United States. We provide examples where continued efforts are needed. We then discuss select opportunities to strengthen federal research and surveillance, programs, and communication and dissemination efforts aimed at improving nutrition and positively, and equitably, influencing the health and well-being of mothers and children. (Am J Public Health. 2022;112(S8):S817-S825. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2022.307028).

Relation between Timing of High-Dose Vitamin A Supplementation and Modified-Relative-Dose-Response Values in Children 12-23 Months in Uganda.

BACKGROUND: High-dose vitamin A (VA) supplements (VAS) can temporarily affect VA status. Hence, micronutrient surveys might need to be timed around VAS campaigns to accurately estimate VA deficiency (VAD) prevalence. Little is known about optimal timing of micronutrient surveys when the modified-relative-dose-response (MRDR) is used as a VA indicator. OBJECTIVES: We evaluated the association between days since the end of a VAS campaign and MRDR values in children aged 12-23 mo in Uganda. METHODS: We pooled data from 2 cross-sectional, population-based surveys in eastern Uganda conducted in 2015-2016 (n = 118 children). We estimated the prevalence of VAD (MRDR ≥0.060). Days since the end of a VAS campaign ("days since VAS") was calculated as the interview date minus the end date of the VAS campaign. The MRDR value was assessed using HPLC. We excluded children whose MRDR values were below the limit of detection (<0.007). We used linear regression to evaluate the association between days since VAS and log-transformed MRDR. In adjusted analyses, we controlled for potential confounders. Statistical analyses accounted for the surveys' complex design. RESULTS: The prevalence of VAD was 5.2% (95% CI: 1.1%, 9.3%). Mean days since VAS was 54.1 d (range 39-68 d). Days since VAS was not associated with log-transformed MRDR in unadjusted analyses ($\hat{\beta } = \ $0.0055; 95% CI: -0.009, 0.020; P = 0.45) or adjusted analyses ($\hat{\beta } = $ -0.0073; 95% CI: -0.024, 0.010; P = 0.39). CONCLUSIONS: MRDR measurement through a nutrition survey began as early as 1.3 mo after the end of a VAS campaign in eastern Uganda. Days since the end of a VAS campaign was not associated with MRDR in Ugandan children aged 12-23 mo. Future studies should consider longitudinal designs and evaluate time since VAS and MRDR in children of different ages and in regions with higher VAD prevalence.

Home fortification of foods with multiple micronutrient powders for health and nutrition in children under two years of age.

BACKGROUND: Vitamin and mineral deficiencies, particularly those of iron, vitamin A, and zinc, affect more than two billion people worldwide. Young children are highly vulnerable because of rapid growth and inadequate dietary practices. Multiple micronutrient powders (MNPs) are single-dose packets containing multiple vitamins and minerals in powder form, which are mixed into any semi-solid food for children six months of age or older. The use of MNPs for home or point-of-use fortification of complementary foods has been proposed as an intervention for improving micronutrient intake in children under two years of age. In 2014, MNP interventions were implemented in 43 countries and reached over three million children. This review updates a previous Cochrane Review, which has become out-of-date. OBJECTIVES: To assess the effects and safety of home (point-of-use) fortification of foods with MNPs on nutrition, health, and developmental outcomes in children under two years of age. For the purposes of this review, home fortification with MNP refers to the addition of powders containing vitamins and minerals to semi-solid foods immediately before consumption. This can be done at home or at any other place that meals are consumed (e.g. schools, refugee camps). For this reason, MNPs are also referred to as point-of-use fortification. SEARCH METHODS: We searched the following databases up to July 2019: CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, and eight other databases. We also searched four trials registers, contacted relevant organisations and authors of included studies to identify any ongoing or unpublished studies, and searched the reference lists of included studies. SELECTION CRITERIA: We included randomised controlled trials (RCTs) and quasi-RCTs with individual randomisation or cluster-randomisation. Participants were infants and young children aged 6 to 23 months at the time of intervention, with no identified specific health problems. The intervention consisted of consumption of food fortified at the point of use with MNP formulated with at least iron, zinc, and vitamin A, compared with placebo, no intervention, or use of iron-containing supplements, which is standard practice. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two review authors independently assessed the eligibility of studies against the inclusion criteria, extracted data from included studies, and assessed the risk of bias of included studies. We reported categorical outcomes as risk ratios (RRs) or odds ratios (ORs), with 95% confidence intervals (CIs), and continuous outcomes as mean differences (MDs) and 95% CIs. We used the GRADE approach to assess the certainty of evidence. MAIN RESULTS: We included 29 studies (33,147 children) conducted in low- and middle-income countries in Asia, Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean, where anaemia is a public health problem. Twenty-six studies with 27,051 children contributed data. The interventions lasted between 2 and 44 months, and the powder formulations contained between 5 and 22 nutrients. Among the 26 studies contributing data, 24 studies (26,486 children) compared the use of MNP versus no intervention or placebo; the two remaining studies compared the use of MNP versus an iron-only supplement (iron drops) given daily. The main outcomes of interest were related to anaemia and iron status. We assessed most of the included studies at low risk of selection and attrition bias. We considered some studies to be at high risk of performance and detection bias due to lack of blinding. Most studies were funded by government programmes or foundations; only two were funded by industry. Home fortification with MNP, compared with no intervention or placebo, reduced the risk of anaemia in infants and young children by 18% (RR 0.82, 95% CI 0.76 to 0.90; 16 studies; 9927 children; moderate-certainty evidence) and iron deficiency by 53% (RR 0.47, 95% CI 0.39 to 0.56; 7 studies; 1634 children; high-certainty evidence). Children receiving MNP had higher haemoglobin concentrations (MD 2.74 g/L, 95% CI 1.95 to 3.53; 20 studies; 10,509 children; low-certainty evidence) and higher iron status (MD 12.93 µg/L, 95% CI 7.41 to 18.45; 7 studies; 2612 children; moderate-certainty evidence) at follow-up compared with children receiving the control intervention. We did not find an effect on weight-for-age (MD 0.02, 95% CI -0.03 to 0.07; 10 studies; 9287 children; moderate-certainty evidence). Few studies reported morbidity outcomes (three to five studies each outcome) and definitions varied, but MNP did not increase diarrhoea, upper respiratory infection, malaria, or all-cause morbidity. In comparison with daily iron supplementation, the use of MNP produced similar results for anaemia (RR 0.89, 95% CI 0.58 to 1.39; 1 study; 145 children; low-certainty evidence) and haemoglobin concentrations (MD -2.81 g/L, 95% CI -10.84 to 5.22; 2 studies; 278 children; very low-certainty evidence) but less diarrhoea (RR 0.52, 95% CI 0.38 to 0.72; 1 study; 262 children; low-certainty of evidence). However, given the limited quantity of data, these results should be interpreted cautiously. Reporting of death was infrequent, although no trials reported deaths attributable to the intervention. Information on side effects and morbidity, including malaria and diarrhoea, was scarce. It appears that use of MNP is efficacious among infants and young children aged 6 to 23 months who are living in settings with different prevalences of anaemia and malaria endemicity, regardless of intervention duration. MNP intake adherence was variable and in some cases comparable to that achieved in infants and young children receiving standard iron supplements as drops or syrups. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: Home fortification of foods with MNP is an effective intervention for reducing anaemia and iron deficiency in children younger than two years of age. Providing MNP is better than providing no intervention or placebo and may be comparable to using daily iron supplementation. The benefits of this intervention as a child survival strategy or for developmental outcomes are unclear. Further investigation of morbidity outcomes, including malaria and diarrhoea, is needed. MNP intake adherence was variable and in some cases comparable to that achieved in infants and young children receiving standard iron supplements as drops or syrups.

Integrating micronutrient status assessment into the 2015-2016 Malawi Demographic and Health Survey: A qualitative evaluation.

Demand for national-level micronutrient status data continues to grow, yet little is known about the implementation of different approaches for collecting these data. We conducted an evaluation of the process of linking the 2015-2016 Malawi Demographic and Health Survey (MDHS) and 2015-2016 Malawi Micronutrient Survey (MNS). We conducted 24 in-depth interviews with stakeholders from the Malawi government and international agencies and field staff. Interview questions explored perceptions of what worked and what was challenging during three phases of implementation: preparation; data collection; and data analysis, reporting, and dissemination. Data were analysed using thematic analysis. Results showed that there was strong government interest to integrate the MDHS and MNS. Perceived benefits included potential cost savings and lower respondent burden. However, government and international agency stakeholders did not view the linkage of the surveys to be a fully integrated approach. The lack of full integration produced challenges throughout implementation, such as complex field logistics and duplication in nutrition indicators assessed and reported. Some stakeholders believed integration was not attainable primarily due to timing. The MDHS and MNS were originally designed as stand-alone surveys, and planning for each survey was at an advanced stage once the government sought to integrate the surveys. Additionally, the MNS could not be incorporated as a module within the MDHS given the complexity of the MNS data collection and short timeframe for planning. These findings can inform decisions about implementing the next MNS and may be transferable to other countries that are conducting micronutrient surveys to address data gaps.

Point-of-use fortification of foods with micronutrient powders containing iron in children of preschool and school-age.

BACKGROUND: Approximately 600 million children of preschool and school age are anaemic worldwide. It is estimated that at least half of the cases are due to iron deficiency. Point-of-use fortification of foods with micronutrient powders (MNP) has been proposed as a feasible intervention to prevent and treat anaemia. It refers to the addition of iron alone or in combination with other vitamins and minerals in powder form, to energy-containing foods (excluding beverages) at home or in any other place where meals are to be consumed. MNPs can be added to foods either during or after cooking or immediately before consumption without the explicit purpose of improving the flavour or colour. OBJECTIVES: To assess the effects of point-of-use fortification of foods with iron-containing MNP alone, or in combination with other vitamins and minerals on nutrition, health and development among children at preschool (24 to 59 months) and school (five to 12 years) age, compared with no intervention, a placebo or iron-containing supplements. SEARCH METHODS: In December 2016, we searched the following databases: CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, BIOSIS, Science Citation Index, Social Science Citation Index, CINAHL, LILACS, IBECS, Popline and SciELO. We also searched two trials registers in April 2017, and contacted relevant organisations to identify ongoing and unpublished trials. SELECTION CRITERIA: Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) and quasi-RCTs trials with either individual or cluster randomisation. Participants were children aged between 24 months and 12 years at the time of intervention. For trials with children outside this age range, we included studies where we were able to disaggregate the data for children aged 24 months to 12 years, or when more than half of the participants were within the requisite age range. We included trials with apparently healthy children; however, we included studies carried out in settings where anaemia and iron deficiency are prevalent, and thus participants may have had these conditions at baseline. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two review authors independently assessed the eligibility of trials against the inclusion criteria, extracted data from included trials, assessed the risk of bias of the included trials and graded the quality of the evidence. MAIN RESULTS: We included 13 studies involving 5810 participants from Latin America, Africa and Asia. We excluded 38 studies and identified six ongoing/unpublished trials. All trials compared the provision of MNP for point-of-use fortification with no intervention or placebo. No trials compared the effects of MNP versus iron-containing supplements (as drops, tablets or syrup).The sample sizes in the included trials ranged from 90 to 2193 participants. Six trials included participants younger than 59 months of age only, four included only children aged 60 months or older, and three trials included children both younger and older than 59 months of age.MNPs contained from two to 18 vitamins and minerals. The iron doses varied from 2.5 mg to 30 mg of elemental iron. Four trials reported giving 10 mg of elemental iron as sodium iron ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (NaFeEDTA), chelated ferrous sulphate or microencapsulated ferrous fumarate. Three trials gave 12.5 mg of elemental iron as microencapsulated ferrous fumarate. Three trials gave 2.5 mg or 2.86 mg of elemental iron as NaFeEDTA. One trial gave 30 mg and one trial provided 14 mg of elemental iron as microencapsulated ferrous fumarate, while one trial gave 28 mg of iron as ferrous glycine phosphate.In comparison with receiving no intervention or a placebo, children receiving iron-containing MNP for point-of-use fortification of foods had lower risk of anaemia prevalence ratio (PR) 0.66, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.49 to 0.88, 10 trials, 2448 children; moderate-quality evidence) and iron deficiency (PR 0.35, 95% CI 0.27 to 0.47, 5 trials, 1364 children; moderate-quality evidence) and had higher haemoglobin (mean difference (MD) 3.37 g/L, 95% CI 0.94 to 5.80, 11 trials, 2746 children; low-quality evidence).Only one trial with 115 children reported on all-cause mortality (zero cases; low-quality evidence). There was no effect on diarrhoea (risk ratio (RR) 0.97, 95% CI 0.53 to 1.78, 2 trials, 366 children; low-quality evidence). AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: Point-of-use fortification of foods with MNPs containing iron reduces anaemia and iron deficiency in preschool- and school-age children. However, information on mortality, morbidity, developmental outcomes and adverse effects is still scarce.

Government information systems to monitor complementary feeding programs for young children.

Accelerating progress to improve complementary feeding of young children is a global priority. Strengthening monitoring through government information systems may increase the quality and implementation of infant and young child feeding (IYCF) programs. Monitoring is necessary for the effective implementation of programs as it allows program managers to assess program performance, identify problems, and take corrective action. Program descriptions and conceptual models explain how program inputs and activities should lead to outputs and outcomes, and ultimately public health impact; thus, they are critical tools when designing effective IYCF programs and monitoring systems as these descriptions and conceptual models form the basis for the program and are key for developing the monitoring system, indicators, and tools. Despite their importance, many programs do not have these documented, nor monitoring plans, limiting their ability to design effective programs and monitoring systems. Once in place, it is important to periodically review the monitoring system to confirm it still appropriately meets stakeholder needs and the data are being used to inform decision-making, and to make program adjustments as the monitoring focus, resources, or capacity may change during the program lifecycle. Including priority indicators of IYCF practices and counseling indicators in the government information systems may strengthen IYCF programs when the indicators are contextualized to the government IYCF program, capacity, and setting, and the indicators are used for decision-making and program improvement.

Predictors of micronutrient powder intake adherence in a pilot programme in Nepal.

OBJECTIVE: Poor adherence to recommended intake protocols is common and a top challenge for micronutrient powder (MNP) programmes globally. Identifying modifiable predictors of intake adherence could inform the design and implementation of MNP projects. DESIGN: We assessed high MNP intake adherence among children who had received MNP ≥2 months ago and consumed ≥1 sachet (n 771). High MNP intake adherence was defined as maternal report of child intake ≥45 sachets. We used logistic regression to assess demographic, intervention components and perception-of-use factors associated with high MNP intake. SETTING: Four districts of Nepal piloting an integrated infant and young child feeding and MNP project. SUBJECTS: Children aged 6-23 months were eligible to receive sixty MNP sachets every 6 months with suggested intake of one sachet daily for 60 d. Cross-sectional surveys representative of children aged 6-23 months were conducted. RESULTS: Receiving a reminder card was associated with increased odds for high intake (OR=2·18, 95 % CI 1·14, 4·18); exposure to other programme components was not associated with high intake. Mothers perceiving ≥1 positive effects in their child after MNP use was also associated with high intake (OR=6·55, 95 % CI 4·29, 10·01). Perceiving negative affects was not associated; however, the child not liking the food with MNP was associated with lower odds of high intake (OR=0·12, 95 % CI 0·08, 0·20). CONCLUSIONS: Behaviour change intervention strategies tailored to address these modifiable predictors could potentially increase MNP intake adherence.

Introducing a new monitoring manual for home fortification and strengthening capacity to monitor nutrition interventions.

Lack of monitoring capacity is a key barrier for nutrition interventions and limits programme management, decision making and programme effectiveness in many low-income and middle-income countries. A 2011 global assessment reported lack of monitoring capacity was the top barrier for home fortification interventions, such as micronutrient powders or lipid-based nutrient supplements. A Manual for Developing and Implementing Monitoring Systems for Home Fortification Interventions was recently disseminated. It is comprehensive and describes monitoring concepts and frameworks and includes monitoring tools and worksheets. The monitoring manual describes the steps of developing and implementing a monitoring system for home fortification interventions, including identifying and engaging stakeholders; developing a programme description including logic model and logical framework; refining the purpose of the monitoring system, identifying users and their monitoring needs; describing the design of the monitoring system; developing indicators; describing the core components of a comprehensive monitoring plan; and considering factors related to stage of programme development, sustainability and scale up. A fictional home fortification example is used throughout the monitoring manual to illustrate these steps. The monitoring manual is a useful tool to support the development and implementation of home fortification intervention monitoring systems. In the context of systematic capacity gaps to design, implement and monitor nutrition interventions in many low-income and middle-income countries, the dissemination of new tools, such as monitoring manuals may have limited impact without additional attention to strengthening other individual, organisational and systems levels capacities.

Predictors of micronutrient powder sachet coverage in Nepal.

Many countries implement micronutrient powder (MNP) programmes to improve the nutritional status of young children. Little is known about the predictors of MNP coverage for different delivery models. We describe MNP coverage of an infant and young child feeding and MNP intervention for children aged 6-23 months comparing two delivery models piloted in rural Nepal: distributing MNPs either by female community health volunteers (FCHVs) or at health facilities (HFs). Cross-sectional household cluster surveys were conducted in four pilot districts among mothers of children 6-23 months after starting MNP distribution. FCHVs in each cluster were also surveyed. We used logistic regression to describe predictors of initial coverage (obtaining a batch of 60 MNP sachets) at 3 months and repeat coverage (≥2 times coverage among eligible children) at 15 months after project launch. At 15 months, initial and repeat coverage were higher in the FCHV model, although no differences were observed at 3 months. Attending an FCHV-led mothers' group meeting where MNP was discussed increased odds of any coverage in both models at 3 months and of repeat coverage in the HF model at 15 months. Perceiving ≥1 positive effects in the child increased odds of repeat coverage in both delivery models. A greater portion of FCHV volunteers from the FCHV model vs. the HF model reported increased burden at 3 and 15 months (not statistically significant). Designing MNP programmes that maximise coverage without overburdening the system can be challenging and more than one delivery model may be needed.

Physiologically based trimester-specific serum ferritin thresholds for iron deficiency in US pregnant women.

ABSTRACT: Serum ferritin (SF) concentration is the most widely used indicator for iron deficiency (ID). During pregnancy, the World Health Organization recently recommended SF thresholds for ID of <15 µg/L for the first trimester of pregnancy, based on expert opinion, and made no recommendations for the second and third trimesters. We examined the relationship of SF with 2 independent indicators of the onset of iron-deficient erythropoiesis, hemoglobin and soluble transferrin receptor 1, in cross-sectional data from US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey for 1999 to 2010 and 2015 to 2018. We included 1288 pregnant women aged 15 to 49 years and excluded women with inflammation or potential liver disease. We used restricted cubic spline (RCS) regression analysis to determine SF thresholds for iron-deficient erythropoiesis. SF decreased during pregnancy; geometric mean SF was higher during the first and lower during the second and third trimesters. Using RCS analysis, the SF thresholds identified during pregnancy were <25.8 µg/L (18.1-28.5) during first trimester, <18.3 µg/L (16.3-22.9) during second trimester, and <19.0 µg/L (14.4- 26.1) during third trimester. These SF threshold levels track concentrations of hepcidin, the iron-regulatory hormone controlling the mobilization of iron stores. An SF concentration of <15 µg/L as the criterion for ID may underestimate the true prevalence of ID throughout pregnancy. In our study, an additional 1 of every 10 pregnant women would be recognized as iron deficient by using the physiologically based thresholds at SF of ∼25 µg/L during the first and ∼20 µg/L during the second and third trimesters.

Comparison of venous and pooled capillary hemoglobin levels for the detection of anemia among adolescent girls.

Introduction: Blood source is a known preanalytical factor affecting hemoglobin (Hb) concentrations, and there is evidence that capillary and venous blood may yield disparate Hb levels and anemia prevalence. However, data from adolescents are scarce. Objective: To compare Hb and anemia prevalence measured by venous and individual pooled capillary blood among a sample of girls aged 10-19 years from 232 schools in four regions of Ghana in 2022. Methods: Among girls who had venous blood draws, a random subsample was selected for capillary blood. Hb was measured using HemoCue® Hb-301. We used Lin's concordance correlation coefficient (CCC) to quantify the strength of the bivariate relationship between venous and capillary Hb and a paired t-test for difference in means. We used McNemar's test for discordance in anemia cases by blood source and weighted Kappa to quantify agreement by anemia severity. A multivariate generalized estimating equation was used to quantify adjusted population anemia prevalence and assess the association between blood source and predicted anemia risk. Results: We found strong concordance between Hb measures (CCC = 0.86). The difference between mean venous Hb (12.8 g/dL, ± 1.1) and capillary Hb (12.9 g/dL, ± 1.2) was not significant (p = 0.26). Crude anemia prevalence by venous and capillary blood was 20.6% and 19.5%, respectively. Adjusted population anemia prevalence was 23.5% for venous blood and 22.5% for capillary (p = 0.45). Blood source was not associated with predicted anemia risk (risk ratio: 0.99, 95% CI: 0.96, 1.02). Discordance in anemia cases by blood source was not significant (McNemar p = 0.46). Weighted Kappa demonstrated moderate agreement by severity (ĸ = 0.67). Among those with anemia by either blood source (n = 111), 59% were identified by both sources. Conclusion: In Ghanaian adolescent girls, there was no difference in mean Hb, anemia prevalence, or predicted anemia risk by blood source. However, only 59% of girls with anemia by either blood source were identified as having anemia by both sources. These findings suggest that pooled capillary blood may be useful for estimating Hb and anemia at the population level, but that caution is needed when interpreting individual-level data.

Emerging Evidence and Critical Issues with the Use of Single-Drop Capillary Blood for the Measurement of Hemoglobin Concentration in Population-Level Anemia Surveys.

Accurate and precise measurement of hemoglobin concentration is critical for reliable estimations of anemia prevalence at the population level. When systematic and/or random error are introduced in hemoglobin measurement, estimates of anemia prevalence might be significantly erroneous and, hence, limit their usefulness. For decades, single-drop capillary blood has been the most common blood source used for the measurement of hemoglobin concentration in surveys, especially in low-income and middle-income countries. In this study, we highlight historical and emerging evidence that single-drop capillary blood introduces a high degree of random error (variability) to hemoglobin estimates, leading to less reliable estimates of anemia prevalence at the population level. At present, the best practice is to collect and use venous blood for measurement of hemoglobin with an automated hematology analyzer, following standard operating procedures and quality assurance measures. Where use of an automated analyzer is not possible, the analysis of venous blood in a point-of-care hemoglobinometer by trained phlebotomists or specimen collectors should be considered. A forthcoming systematic review will provide additional evidence on the accuracy and precision of single-drop capillary blood for hemoglobin assessment. In the meantime, we raise caution when using single-drop capillary blood for hemoglobin measurement as it can result in inaccurate hemoglobin estimates and less reliable anemia prevalence estimates.

Sustainability of market-based community distribution of Sprinkles in western Kenya.

To evaluate the sustainability of market-based community distribution of micronutrient powders (Sprinkles(®), Hexagon Nutrition, Mumbai, India.) among pre-school children in Kenya, we conducted in August 2010 a follow-up survey, 18 months after study-related marketing and household monitoring ended. We surveyed 849 children aged 6-35 months randomly selected from 60 study villages. Nutritional biomarkers were measured by fingerstick; demographic characteristics, Sprinkles purchases and use were assessed through household questionnaires. We compared Sprinkles use, marketing efforts and biomarker levels with the data from surveys conducted in March 2007, March 2008 and March 2009. We used logistic regression to evaluate associations between marketing activities and Sprinkles use in the 2010 survey. At the 2010 follow-up, 21.9% of children used Sprinkles in the previous 7 days, compared with 64.9% in 2008 (P < 0.001). Average intake was 3.2 sachets week(-1) in 2008, 1.6 sachets week(-1) in 2009 and 1.1 sachets week(-1) in 2010 (P < 0.001). Factors associated with recent Sprinkles use in 2010 included young age [6-23 months vs. 24-35 months, adjusted odds ratio (aOR) = 1.5, P = 0.02], lowest 2 quintiles of socio-economic status (aOR = 1.7, P = 0.004), household attendance at trainings or launches (aOR = 2.8, P < 0.001) and ever receiving promotional items including free Sprinkles, calendars, cups and t-shirts (aOR = 1.7, P = 0.04). In 2010, there was increased prevalence of anaemia and malaria (P < 0.001), but not iron deficiency (P = 0.44), compared with that in 2008. Sprinkles use in 2010 was associated with decreased iron deficiency (P = 0.03). Sprinkles coverage reduced after stopping household monitoring and reducing marketing activities. Continued promotion and monitoring of Sprinkles usage may be important components to sustain the programme.

What Do United States Adolescents Eat? Food Group Consumption Patterns and Dietary Diversity from a Decade of Nationally Representative Data.

Background: Although the importance of adolescent nutrition has gained attention in the global nutrition community, there is a gap in research focused on adolescent dietary diversity and food group consumption. Objectives: This study aimed to characterize population-level food group consumption patterns and quantify the extent of dietary diversity among United States adolescents using a large nationally representative sample of adolescents aged 10-19 y. Methods: We used 24-h dietary recall data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) from 2007 to 2018 to construct the 10 food groups comprising the minimum dietary diversity for women (MDD-W) indicator and estimated the prevalence of intake of each food group. A composite metric adolescent dietary diversity score (ADDS) was derived for each adolescent where 1 point was awarded per food group. Both population scores and the distribution of individual scores were estimated. Differences in proportions of food groups consumed across sociodemographic categories were tested using the Rao-Scott χ2 test, and pairwise comparisons were expressed as population prevalence differences and prevalence ratios. Results: Food group consumption patterns were very similar across 2 d of dietary recall but varied significantly by sex, race/ethnicity, and income status. The food groups with the highest prevalence of consumption were grains, white, roots, and tubers (∼99%), milk products (∼92%), and meat, poultry, and fish (∼85%), whereas <15% of adolescents consumed key micronutrient-dense foods, such as vitamin A-rich fruits and vegetables and dark green vegetables. The mean ADDS was 4.69, with modest variation across strata. Conclusions: On average, United States youth consumed fewer than 5 food groups on a given day. The lack of dietary variety and relatively low prevalence of consumption of several micronutrient-rich plant-based foods could pose a risk for adolescents' ability to achieve micronutrient adequacy in the United States.

Review of intervention products for use in the prevention and control of anemia.

Anemia remains a major public health problem, especially in low- and middle-income countries. The World Health Organization recommends several interventions to prevent and manage anemia in vulnerable population groups, including young children, menstruating adolescent girls and women, and pregnant and postpartum women. Daily iron supplementation reduces the risk of anemia in infants, children, and pregnant women, and intermittent iron supplementation reduces anemia risk in menstruating girls and women. Micronutrient powders reduce the risk of anemia in children. Fortifying wheat flour with iron reduces the risk of anemia in the overall population, whereas the effect of fortifying maize flour and rice is still uncertain. Regarding non-nutrition-related interventions, malaria treatment and deworming have been reported to decrease anemia prevalence. Promising interventions to prevent anemia include vitamin A supplementation, multiple micronutrient supplementation for pregnant women, small-quantity lipid-based supplements, and fortification of salt with iodine and iron. Future research could address the efficacy and safety of different iron supplementation formulations, identify the most bioavailable form of iron for fortification, examine adherence to supplementation regimens and fortification standards, and investigate the effectiveness of integrating micronutrient, helminth, and malaria control programs.

Accelerating action to reduce anemia: Review of causes and risk factors and related data needs.

Anemia is a major public health concern. Young children, menstruating adolescent girls and women, and pregnant women are among the most vulnerable. Anemia is the consequence of a wide range of causes, including biological, socioeconomic, and ecological risk factors. Primary causes include: iron deficiency; inherited red blood cell disorders; infections, such as soil-transmitted helminthiasis, schistosomiasis, and malaria; gynecological and obstetric conditions; and other chronic diseases that lead to blood loss, decreased erythropoiesis, or destruction of erythrocytes. The most vulnerable population groups in low- and middle-income countries are often at the greatest risk to suffer from several of these causes simultaneously as low socioeconomic status is linked with an increased risk of anemia through multiple pathways. Targeted and effective action is needed to prevent anemia. Understanding the causes and risk factors of anemia for different population subgroups within a country guides the design and implementation of effective strategies to prevent and treat anemia. A coordinated approach across various expert groups and programs could make the best use of existing data or could help to determine when newer and more relevant data may need to be collected, especially in countries with a high anemia burden and limited information on the etiology of anemia.