Therapeutic concentration of ciprofloxacin and transfer across the human term placenta.

BACKGROUND: Pregnant women have an increased risk of infections, and early and decisive treatment is preferred to prevent complications. Although ciprofloxacin is very commonly used, safety aspects of maternal treatment during pregnancy are limited, and avoidance of its use during late pregnancy is recommended. OBJECTIVE: The aim is to estimate maternal-to-fetal transfer clearance of ciprofloxacin at a therapeutic concentration and to determine fetal exposure to maternally administered ciprofloxacin. STUDY DESIGN: Transplacental pharmacokinetics were determined with an ex vivo placental model, which is a reliable experimental model for estimating fetal drug exposure. Human placentas from uncomplicated term pregnancies were collected after delivery and a suitable cotyledon was cannulated. Ciprofloxacin was added at a therapeutic concentration (1.6 µg/mL) to the maternal compartment, and antipyrine was included as a reference drug (10.0 µg/mL). Samples were collected from the maternal and fetal compartment at 12 time points (-2 to 180 minutes), and the integrity and metabolic parameters were measured consecutively. Drug concentrations were determined using ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. RESULTS: A total of 5 human placentas from healthy term pregnancies were collected after delivery and cannulated with success. Ciprofloxacin crossed the placenta; its mean concentration in the fetal compartment was 0.3 µg/mL, accounting for 22% (0.29/1.30; range, 15%-31%) of the maternal concentration after 3 hours. The fetal/maternal ciprofloxacin concentration ratio increased gradually over time and reached 0.53. The transfer clearance for ciprofloxacin was 0.28 mL/min (range, 0.21-0.41 mL/min) during the first hour and 0.21 mL/min (range, 0.14-0.26 mL/min) during the following 2 hours. After end perfusion, the mean tissue concentration and proportion of ciprofloxacin were 0.7 µg/g and 11% (14/130; range, 7%-14%), respectively. CONCLUSION: Ciprofloxacin crossed the placenta at a slow, constant rate, indicating moderate fetal exposure. This study verifies an accumulation of ciprofloxacin in the placenta that may lengthen the duration of fetal exposure. These results are an essential element of fetal risk assessment, but further studies are needed to estimate fetal safety.

Polyethylenimine architecture-dependent metabolic imprints and perturbation of cellular redox homeostasis.

Polyethylenimines (PEIs) are among the most efficient polycationic non-viral transfectants. PEI architecture and size not only modulate transfection efficiency, but also cytotoxicity. However, the underlying mechanisms of PEI-induced multifaceted cell damage and death are largely unknown. Here, we demonstrate that the central mechanisms of PEI architecture- and size-dependent perturbations of integrated cellular metabolomics involve destabilization of plasma membrane and mitochondrial membranes with consequences on mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS), glycolytic flux and redox homeostasis that ultimately modulate cell death. In comparison to linear PEI, the branched architectures induced greater plasma membrane destabilization and were more detrimental to glycolytic activity and OXPHOS capacity as well as being a more potent inhibitor of the cytochrome c oxidase. Accordingly, the branched architectures caused a greater lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and ATP depletion, activated AMP kinase (AMPK) and disturbed redox homeostasis through diminished availability of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH), reduced antioxidant capacity of glutathione (GSH) and increased burden of reactive oxygen species (ROS). The differences in metabolic and redox imprints were further reflected in the transfection performance of the polycations, but co-treatment with the GSH precursor N-acetyl-cysteine (NAC) counteracted redox dysregulation and increased the number of viable transfected cells. Integrated biomembrane integrity and metabolomic analysis provides a rapid approach for mechanistic understanding of multifactorial polycation-mediated cytotoxicity, and could form the basis for combinatorial throughput platforms for improved design and selection of safer polymeric vectors.

Octreotide improves human lymphatic fluid transport a translational trial.

OBJECTIVES: Chylothorax is a complex condition and many different pharmacological agents have been tried as treatment. Octreotide is used off-label to treat chylothorax, but the efficacy of octreotide remains unclear. A decrease in lymph production is suggested as the mechanism. In this cross-over study, we explore the direct effect of octreotide on human lymphatic drainage. METHODS: Pre-clinical: the effect of octreotide on force generation was assessed during acute and prolonged drug incubation on human lymphatic vessels mounted in a myograph. Clinical: in a double-blinded, randomized, cross-over trial including 16 healthy adults, we administered either octreotide or saline as an intravenous infusion for 2.5 h. Near-infrared fluorescence imaging was used to examine spontaneous lymphatic contractions and lymph pressure in peripheral lymphatic vessels and plethysmography was performed to assess the capillary filtration rate, capillary filtration coefficient and isovolumetric pressures of the lower leg. RESULTS: Pre-clinical: human thoracic duct (n = 12) contraction rate was concentration-dependently stimulated by octreotide with a maximum effect at 10 and 100 nmol/l in the myograph chamber. Clinical: spontaneous lymphatic contractions and lymph pressure evaluated by near-infrared fluorescence did not differ between octreotide or placebo (P = 0.36). Plethysmography revealed similar capillary filtration coefficients (P = 0.057), but almost a doubling of the isovolumetric pressures (P = 0.005) during octreotide infusion. CONCLUSIONS: Octreotide stimulated lymphatic contractility in the pre-clinical setup but did not affect the spontaneous lymphatic contractions or lymph pressure in healthy individuals. Plethysmography revealed a doubling in the isovolumetric pressure. These results suggest that octreotide increases lymphatic drainage capacity in situations with high lymphatic afterload.

Validation and advantages of using novel RT-qPCR melting curve analysis assays for the identification of SARS-CoV-2 variants.

Reverse transcription quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) assays are gold standard in diagnosing SARS-CoV-2 infection and play a major role in viral subtyping for rapid detection and monitoring of important mutations, containing the spread of new virus variants. We wanted to compare RT-qPCR melting curve analysis assays to Sanger Sequencing for detection of variants within the SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein and examined their sensitivity and specificity. Samples positive for SARS-CoV-2 (n = 663 + 82) were subtyped using both Sanger sequencing and five RT-qPCR melting curve analysis assays specific for the mutations N501Y, P681H, E484K, K417N/T, and N439K. The results of the two methods were compared. The training cohort and the clinical validation cohort showed equally, or significantly better sensitivity of the assays compared to the Sanger sequencing. The agreement of the Sanger sequencing and the assays ranged from 92.6 to 100% for the training cohort and 99.4-100% for the clinical validation. The sensitivity, specificity, and turn-around time of the RT-qPCR melting curve analysis assays are well-suited for clinical monitoring of VOCs, making the assays an important tool in contact tracing and risk stratification. Furthermore, the assays were able to indicate the presence of new mutations in the complementary sequence to the mutation-specific probes.

Upregulation of the brainstem preproglucagon system in the obese Zucker rat.

A group of neurons in the caudal nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) processes preproglucagon to glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1), GLP-2 and oxyntomodulin. Whereas the anorectic capacity of all three neuropeptides has been demonstrated, only relatively little is known of preproglucagon mRNA regulation in the brain stem. Using in situ hybridization and fluorescence immunohistochemistry, we examined hindbrain preproglucagon expression in lean and obese Zucker rats under different metabolic perturbations. First, the effect of an acute 48-h fast was examined in male Sprague-Dawley as well as in lean and obese Zucker rats. Whereas fasting had no effect on preproglucagon expression in either genotype, mRNA levels were strongly up regulated in obese Zucker rats. Using a direct immunostaining procedure and a monoclonal GLP-2 antibody, we found a doubling of the immunofluorescence signal emanating from the preproglucagon neurons in caudal brainstem suggesting that indeed the high mRNA levels observed using in situ hybridization histochemistry also reflect a higher translational activity. To investigate the effects of long-term body weight perturbations, lean and obese Zucker rats were either free-fed, voluntarily overfed (chocolate spread enriched chow) or food restricted for 35 days. Preproglucagon levels remained high in the obese Zucker rats irrespective of diet. Finally, in order to functionally validate the apparent hyperactivity in the preproglucagon system in the Zucker rat, we examined the effect of central GLP-1 receptor blockade. ICV administration of 20 microg of the GLP-1 receptor antagonist Des-His-Exendin-9-39 in the morning increased 4-h food intake in obese but not in lean Zucker rats, pointing to an increased activity in central preproglucagon containing pathways in leptin receptor deficient rats. Our data suggest that the preproglucagon neurons in the brainstem are influenced by leptin signaling and point to a role of preproglucagon neurons in the integration of metabolic signals that occurs in the nucleus of the solitary tract.

Differential influences of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors gamma and -alpha on food intake and energy homeostasis.

Chronic treatment with compounds activating peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)gamma and -alpha influences body energy stores, but the underlying mechanisms are only partially known. In a chronic-dosing study, equiefficacious antihyperglycemic doses of the PPAR gamma agonist pioglitazone and PPAR alpha/gamma dual activator ragaglitazar were administered to obesity-prone male rats. The PPAR alpha agonist fenofibrate had no effect on insulin sensitivity. Pioglitazone transiently increased and fenofibrate transiently decreased food intake, whereas ragaglitazar had no impact on feeding. As a result, body adiposity increased in pioglitazone-treated rats and decreased in fenofibrate-treated rats. PPAR gamma compounds markedly increased feed efficiency, whereas PPAR alpha agonist treatment decreased feed efficiency. In fenofibrate-treated rats, plasma acetoacetate was significantly elevated. Plasma levels of this potentially anorectic ketone body were unaffected in pioglitazone- and ragaglitazar-treated rats. High-fat feeding markedly increased visceral fat pads, and this was prevented by pioglitazone and ragaglitazar treatment. Pioglitazone treatment enlarged subcutaneous adiposity in high-fat-fed rats. In conclusion, PPAR gamma activation increases both food intake and feed efficiency, resulting in net accumulation of subcutaneous body fat. The impact of PPAR gamma activation on feeding and feed efficiency appears to be partially independent because the PPAR alpha component of ragaglitazar completely counteracts the orexigenic actions of PPAR gamma activation without marked impact on feed efficiency.

Ups and downs for neuropeptides in body weight homeostasis: pharmacological potential of cocaine amphetamine regulated transcript and pre-proglucagon-derived peptides.

Although most humans experience an underlying upwards drift of the body-weight set-point, body weight appears tightly regulated throughout life. The present review describes the structural basis of the adipostat and hypothesise, which components may constitute available targets for pharmacotherapy of excess body weight. Hypothalamic neurones constitute the major components of the body weight homeostasis maintaining device. Together with neurones of the nucleus of the solitary tract, neurones of the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus constitute the sensory components of the adipostat. The arcuate nucleus neurones respond to circulating levels of leptin and insulin, both of which reflect the levels of energy stored as triacylglycerol in adipocytes. The arcuate nucleus projects heavily to the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus. Neurones of the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus are hypothesised to constitute, at least partly, the adipostat motor pattern generator, which upon stimulation activates either net anabolic or catabolic physiological responses. The overall sensitivity of the adipostat is influenced by gain setting neurones hypothesised to be located in the dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus and lateral hypothalamic area. Cocaine amphetamine regulated transcript (CART) peptides and pre-proglucagon derived peptides, glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and glucagon-like peptide-2 (GLP-2) are catabolic neurotransmitters synthesised in neurones of the arcuate nucleus and the nucleus of the solitary tract, respectively. The present review summarises the available evidence that both families of peptides constitute endogenous transmitters mediating satiety and touch upon potential pharmacological exploitation of this knowledge.

Dysfunctional oxidative phosphorylation makes malignant melanoma cells addicted to glycolysis driven by the (V600E)BRAF oncogene.

Oncogene addiction describes how cancer cells exhibit dependence on single oncogenes to escape apoptosis and senescence. While oncogene addiction constitutes the basis for new cancer treatment strategies targeting individual kinases and pathways activated by oncogenic mutations, the biochemical basis for this addiction is largely unknown. Here we provide evidence for a metabolic rationale behind the addiction to (V600E)BRAF in two malignant melanoma cell lines. Both cell lines display a striking addiction to glycolysis due to underlying dysfunction of oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS). Notably, even minor reductions in glycolytic activity lead to increased OXPHOS activity (reversed Warburg effect), however the mitochondria are unable to sustain ATP production. We show that (V600E)BRAF upholds the activity of glycolysis and therefore the addiction to glycolysis de facto becomes an addiction to (V600E)BRAF. Finally, the senescence response associated with inhibition of (V600E)BRAF is rescued by overexpression of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), providing direct evidence that oncogene addiction rests on a metabolic foundation.

Bioenergetic profile experiment using C2C12 myoblast cells.

The ability to measure cellular metabolism and understand mitochondrial dysfunction, has enabled scientists worldwide to advance their research in understanding the role of mitochondrial function in obesity, diabetes, aging, cancer, cardiovascular function and safety toxicity. Cellular metabolism is the process of substrate uptake, such as oxygen, glucose, fatty acids, and glutamine, and subsequent energy conversion through a series of enzymatically controlled oxidation and reduction reactions. These intracellular biochemical reactions result in the production of ATP, the release of heat and chemical byproducts, such as lactate and CO(2) into the extracellular environment. Valuable insight into the physiological state of cells, and the alteration of the state of those cells, can be gained through measuring the rate of oxygen consumed by the cells, an indicator of mitochondrial respiration--the Oxygen Consumption Rate--or OCR. Cells also generate ATP through glycolysis, i.e.: the conversion of glucose to lactate, independent of oxygen. In cultured wells, lactate is the primary source of protons. Measuring the lactic acid produced indirectly via protons released into the extracellular medium surrounding the cells, which causes acidification of the medium provides the Extra-Cellular Acidification Rate--or ECAR. In this experiment, C2C12 myoblast cells are seeded at a given density in Seahorse cell culture plates. The basal oxygen consumption (OCR) and extracellular acidification (ECAR) rates are measured to establish baseline rates. The cells are then metabolically perturbed by three additions of different compounds (in succession) that shift the bioenergetic profile of the cell. This assay is derived from a classic experiment to assess mitochondria and serves as a framework with which to build more complex experiments aimed at understanding both physiologic and pathophysiologic function of mitochondria and to predict the ability of cells to respond to stress and/or insults.

The Nkx6.1 homeodomain transcription factor suppresses glucagon expression and regulates glucose-stimulated insulin secretion in islet beta cells.

We have previously described rat insulinoma INS-1-derived cell lines with robust or poor glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS). In the current study, we have further resolved these lines into three classes: class 1, glucose-unresponsive/glucagon-expressing; class 2, glucose-unresponsive/glucagon-negative; and class 3, glucose-responsive/glucagon-negative. The transcription factor Nkx2.2 was expressed with relative abundance of 3.3, 1.0, and 1.0 in class 1, class 2, and class 3 cells, respectively, whereas Nkx6.1 expression had the opposite trend: 1.0, 2.6, and 6.4 in class 1, class 2, and class 3 cells, respectively. In class 1 cells, overexpressed Nkx6.1 suppressed glucagon expression but did not affect the levels of several other prominent beta cell transcription factors. RNA interference (RNAi)-mediated suppression of Nkx6.1 in class 3 cells resulted in a doubling of glucagon mRNA, with no effect on Pdx1 levels, whereas suppression of Pdx1 in class 3 cells caused a 12-fold increase in glucagon transcript levels, demonstrating independent effects of Nkx6.1 and Pdx1 on glucagon expression in beta cell lines. RNAi-mediated suppression of Nkx6.1 expression in class 3 cells also caused a decrease in GSIS from 13.9- to 3.7-fold, whereas suppression of Pdx1 reduced absolute amounts of insulin secretion without affecting fold response. Finally, RNAi-mediated suppression of Nkx6.1 mRNA in primary rat islets was accompanied by a significant decrease in GSIS relative to control cells. In sum, our studies have revealed roles for Nkx6.1 in suppression of glucagon expression and control of GSIS in islet beta cells.

PPARalpha /gamma ragaglitazar eliminates fatty liver and enhances insulin action in fat-fed rats in the absence of hepatomegaly.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)alpha and PPARgamma agonists lower lipid accumulation in muscle and liver by different mechanisms. We investigated whether benefits could be achieved on insulin sensitivity and lipid metabolism by the dual PPARalpha/gamma agonist ragaglitazar in high fat-fed rats. Ragaglitazar completely eliminated high-fat feeding-induced liver triglyceride accumulation and visceral adiposity, like the PPARalpha agonist Wy-14643 but without causing hepatomegaly. In contrast, the PPARgamma agonist rosiglitazone only slightly lessened liver triglyceride without affecting visceral adiposity. Compared with rosiglitazone or Wy-14643, ragaglitazar showed a much greater effect (79%, P < 0.05) to enhance insulin's suppression of hepatic glucose output. Whereas all three PPAR agonists lowered plasma triglyceride levels and lessened muscle long-chain acyl-CoAs, ragaglitazar and rosiglitazone had greater insulin-sensitizing action in muscle than Wy-14643, associated with a threefold increase in plasma adiponectin levels. There was a significant correlation of lipid content and insulin action in liver and particularly muscle with adiponectin levels (P < 0.01). We conclude that the PPARalpha/gamma agonist ragaglitazar has a therapeutic potential for insulin-resistant states as a PPARgamma ligand, with possible involvement of adiponectin. Additionally, it can counteract fatty liver, hepatic insulin resistance, and visceral adiposity generally associated with PPARalpha activation, but without hepatomegaly.