Exposure to parental separation in childhood and later parenting quality as an adult: evidence from a 30-year longitudinal study.

BACKGROUND: Previous research has documented that exposure to parental separation/divorce during childhood can be associated with long-term consequences into adulthood. This study sought to extend this literature by examining associations between childhood exposure to parental separation/divorce and later parenting behavior as an adult in a New Zealand birth cohort. METHODS: Data were drawn from the Christchurch Health and Development Study (CHDS), a longitudinal study of a birth cohort of 1,265 children born in 1977 in Christchurch, New Zealand. Information about exposure to parental separation and divorce was gathered annually from birth to 15 years. At the 30-year follow-up, all cohort members who had become parents (biological or nonbiological) were assessed on several parenting dimensions (sensitivity, warmth, overreactivity, inconsistency, quality of child management, and physical punishment). RESULTS: The analyses showed that exposure to more frequent parental separation in childhood and adolescence was associated with lower levels of parental sensitivity and warmth, greater overreactivity, and an increased use of physical punishment as a parent, after controlling for a wide range of family socioeconomic and psychosocial factors, and individual child characteristics. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest that as exposure to parental separation increases, so does the likelihood of experiencing multiple developmental challenges in childhood and adolescence. As an adult, these life-course experiences can have small but significant associations with the quality of parenting behavior.

Adiposity and psychosocial outcomes at ages 30 and 35.

PURPOSE: To examine associations between adiposity and adult psychosocial outcomes (depressive symptoms, life satisfaction, self-esteem, household income, personal income, savings/investments) in a New Zealand birth cohort, by gender. Adiposity was assessed using Body Mass Index scores classified on a 3-point scale of BMI: <25.0, overweight (25.0-29.9) or obese (≥30). METHODS: Data were gathered via face-to-face and telephone interviews for the Christchurch Health and Development Study (CHDS), comprising a birth cohort of 1265 children born in Christchurch, New Zealand, in 1977. BMI and psychosocial outcome information was collected in 2007 (30 years; n = 977) and in 2012 (35 years; n = 923). RESULTS: Population-averaged regression modeling showed evidence of statistically significant (p < 0.05) associations between increasing adiposity and adverse psychosocial outcomes for females, but not for males. After adjustment for child and family background covariates the strength of the associations for females was reduced; with four associations (depressive symptoms, life satisfaction, equivalized household income and savings/investments) remaining statistically significant (p < 0.05). In contrast, for males there was a significant (p = 0.008) positive association between adiposity and higher personal net weekly income after covariate adjustment. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest evidence of gender differences in the associations between adiposity and psychosocial outcomes. For females, there were small but pervasive tendencies for increasing adiposity to be related to more adverse mental health, psychological well-being and economic outcomes; whereas for males adiposity was either unrelated to these outcomes, or in the case of personal income, associated with greater economic advantage. The implications of these findings are discussed.

Parental separation/divorce in childhood and partnership outcomes at age 30.

BACKGROUND: Previous research has found that children exposed to separation/divorce may also experience relationship problems in adulthood. The aim of this investigation was to examine this issue in a birth cohort of over 900 New Zealand children studied to age 30. METHODS: Data were gathered over the course of the Christchurch Health and Development Study (CHDS). The CHDS is a 30 year longitudinal study of a birth cohort of 1265 children born in Christchurch (NZ) in 1977. The data collected included the following: (a) timing and number of parental separations and divorces from birth to 15 years; (b) partnership outcomes (16-30 years) of the number of cohabiting/marriage partnerships; positive partner relations; negative partner relations; partner adjustment/conduct problems; and interpartner violence victimization and perpetration; and (c) potential covariate factors. RESULTS: Study findings showed the presence of significant associations between childhood parental separations/divorces and number of cohabiting/marriage partnerships (16-30 years) (p < .001), negative partner relations (p = .021), extent of partner adjustment/conduct problems (p < .001), and perpetration of interpartner violence (p = .018). Childhood parental separation/divorce explained less than 2.5% of the variance in partnership outcomes. These associations were explained statistically by a series of covariate factors associated with childhood parental separation/divorce including parental history of illicit drug use, childhood sexual abuse, childhood conduct problems (7-9 years), interparental conflict and violence, childhood physical punishment/maltreatment, family socio-economic status at the child's birth, and parental history of criminality. Tests of gender interaction showed that the effect of childhood parental separations/divorces may be the same for males and females. Analysis of the number of childhood parental separations/divorces experienced into three age groups (birth to 5, 5-10 years and 10-15 years) yielded similar results. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that the general associations between childhood parental separation/divorce and partner relationships in adulthood reflect the consequences of various contextual factors that are associated with childhood parental separation.

Early motherhood and subsequent life outcomes.

BACKGROUND: Early motherhood has been linked with a number of adverse outcomes, including mental health difficulties and barriers to completing educational qualifications and workforce participation. The present study examined the extent to which these linkages could be explained by the influence of social, family, and background factors that were associated with early motherhood. METHODS: Data were gathered as part of the Christchurch Health and Development Study, a 25-year longitudinal study of a birth cohort of New Zealand children. Information was obtained on: (a) the history of pregnancy and parenthood for female participants over the period 15-21 years; (b) measures of DSM-IV mental disorders and suicidal behaviour over the interval 21-25 years; (c) measures of educational achievement over the interval 21-25 years; (d) measures of welfare dependence, workforce participation, and income over the interval 21-25 years; and (e) childhood, family and related confounding factors. RESULTS: Early motherhood was associated with higher levels of mental health disorders, lower levels of educational achievement, higher levels of welfare dependence, lower levels of workforce participation, and lower income. Control for confounding factors reduced the associations between early motherhood and later mental health disorders to statistical non-significance. However, the associations between early motherhood and later educational achievement and economic circumstances persisted after control for potentially confounding factors. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest that early motherhood puts young women at risk for educational underachievement and poorer economic circumstances. The linkages between early motherhood and later mental health difficulties can largely be accounted for by childhood, family, and related circumstances that occurred prior to parenthood.

Transition to parenthood and substance use disorders: findings from a 30-year longitudinal study.

BACKGROUND: This study examined the associations between the transition to parenthood and substance use disorders from ages 18 to 30 in a New Zealand birth cohort. METHODS: Outcomes included: DSM-IV criteria for: (a) alcohol abuse/dependence (AAD) and (b) illicit substance abuse/dependence. The study also used measures transition to parenthood during the period 18-30 years; and observed covariate factors including: family socio-economic status; family functioning; childhood abuse exposure; childhood personal and behavioural characteristics; and psychosocial adjustment in adolescence. Data were analysed using repeated measures generalised estimating equation models, and conditional fixed effects regression modelling to control for confounding. Gender interactions were examined using moderated regression analyses. RESULTS: Those who became parents had unadjusted odds of substance use disorder outcomes that were approximately 50% lower than those who had not become parents. Adjustment of the associations for both: (a) observed confounding factors and (b) non-observed fixed effects; strengthened the associations between parenthood status and substance use disorders. Custodial parents had odds of substance use disorders that were 57-78% lower than those who did not become parents after adjusting for non-observed fixed effects. Additional analyses suggested these effects were confined to custodial parents only. There was also evidence for gender×parenthood status interactions for AAD, with the effects of parenthood on AAD being stronger for females. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that the transition to custodial parenthood may result in reduced risks of substance use disorder, particularly amongst female cohort members.

Knowledge and attitudes about suicide in 25-year-olds.

OBJECTIVE: To examine knowledge and attitudes about suicide in a New Zealand sample of young people aged 25 years. METHOD: The sample was a birth cohort of 1265 young people born in New Zealand in 1977 who have been followed in a longitudinal study for 25 years. At age 25, participants were asked a series of questions designed to assess their knowledge and attitudes about suicide. RESULTS: Young people had poor knowledge about youth suicide. They overestimated the number of youth suicide deaths, with a quarter believing that the number of deaths was at least 10x higher than the actual number. They overestimated the fraction of all suicides accounted for by youth suicides with two-thirds believing that 50% or more of all suicides occurred among young people. The most common source of information about suicide was the media. Young people tended to hold mixed attitudes toward suicide, having both liberal and conservative views. Those with lifetime histories of suicidal ideation or suicide attempt and those with family histories of suicide or suicide attempt tended to hold more liberal attitudes. Attitudes toward suicide were unrelated to gender and to knowledge about suicide. CONCLUSIONS: Young people over-estimate the prevalence of youth suicide and the fraction of suicides accounted for by youth deaths, and hold both conservative and liberal attitudes toward suicide. Their primary source of information about suicide is the media. These findings raise concerns about the potential for media coverage of youth suicide issues to normalize suicide as a common, and thereby acceptable, response among young people, and suggest the need for careful dissemination of accurate information about suicide by knowledgeable, respected and reputable sources.