The association of polygenic risk for schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and depression with neural connectivity in adolescents and young adults: examining developmental and sex differences.

Neurodevelopmental abnormalities in neural connectivity have been long implicated in the etiology of schizophrenia (SCZ); however, it remains unclear whether these neural connectivity patterns are associated with genetic risk for SCZ in unaffected individuals (i.e., an absence of clinical features of SCZ or a family history of SCZ). We examine whether polygenic risk scores (PRS) for SCZ are associated with functional neural connectivity in adolescents and young adults without SCZ, whether this association is moderated by sex and age, and if similar associations are observed for genetically related neuropsychiatric PRS. One-thousand four-hundred twenty-six offspring from 913 families, unaffected with SCZ, were drawn from the Collaborative Study of the Genetics of Alcoholism (COGA) prospective cohort (median age at first interview = 15.6 (12-26), 51.6% female, 98.1% European American, 41% with a family history of alcohol dependence). Participants were followed longitudinally with resting-state EEG connectivity (i.e., coherence) assessed every two years. Higher SCZ PRS were associated with elevated theta (3-7 Hz) and alpha (7-12 Hz) EEG coherence. Associations differed by sex and age; the most robust associations were observed between PRS and parietal-occipital, central-parietal, and frontal-parietal alpha coherence among males between ages 15-19 (B: 0.15-0.21, p < 10-4). Significant associations among EEG coherence and Bipolar and Depression PRS were observed, but differed from SCZ PRS in terms of sex, age, and topography. Findings reveal that polygenic risk for SCZ is robustly associated with increased functional neural connectivity among young adults without a SCZ diagnosis. Striking differences were observed between men and women throughout development, mapping onto key periods of risk for the onset of psychotic illness and underlining the critical importance of examining sex differences in associations with neuropsychiatric PRS across development.

Skeletal muscle response to exercise training in congestive heart failure.

To examine the ability of the skeletal muscle of congestive heart failure (CHF) patients to adapt to chronic exercise, five patients performed localized nondominant wrist flexor training for 28 d. Inorganic phosphate (Pi) and phosphocreatine (PCr) were monitored by magnetic resonance spectroscopy in both forearms at rest and during submaximal wrist flexion exercise at 6, 12, 24, and 36 J.min-1 before and after exercise training. Simultaneous measurements of limb blood flow were made by plethysmography at 12, 24, and 36 J.min-1. Forearm muscle mass and endurance were measured by magnetic resonance imaging and wrist flexion exercise before and after training. The Pi/PCr ratio and pH were calculated from the measured Pi and PCr. Exercise cardiac output, heart rate, plasma norepinephrine, and lactate measured during training were not elevated above resting values, confirming that training was localized to the forearm flexor muscles. After training, muscle bioenergetics, as assessed by the slope of the regression line relating Pi/PCr to submaximal workloads, were improved in the trained forearm of each patient, although muscle mass, limb blood flow, and pH were unchanged. Forearm endurance increased by greater than 260% after training. In the dominant untrained forearm, none of the measured indices were affected. We conclude that localized forearm exercise training in CHF patients improves muscle energetics at submaximal workloads in the trained muscle, an effect which is independent of muscle mass, limb blood flow, or a central cardiovascular response during training. These findings indicate that peripheral muscle metabolic and functional abnormalities in CHF can be improved without altering cardiac performance.

Water intake and urinary hydration biomarkers in children.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: The aims of the study were as follows: (1) examine fluid intake and urinary hydration markers of children in Greece, (2) determine the calculated relative risk of hypohydration in children who did not meet the recommendations for daily water intake provided by the Institute of Medicine and the European Food Safety Authority compared with those who did and (3) analyze the efficacy of the recommendations as a method to achieve euhydration in children. SUBJECTS/METHODS: One hundred and fifty Greek boys and girls (age 9-13) recorded their fluid intake for 2 consecutive days. A 24-h urine collection was obtained during the second day. Fluid intake records were analyzed for total water intake from fluids (TWI-F), and urine samples were analyzed for osmolality, color, specific gravity and volume. Urine osmolality ⩾800 mmol/kg H2O was defined as hypohydration. RESULTS: Water intake from fluids was 1729 (1555-1905) and 1550 (1406-1686) ml/d for boys and girls, respectively. Prevalence of hypohydration was 33% (44% of boys, 23% of girls). Children who failed to meet TWI-F recommendations demonstrated a risk of hypohydration that was 1.99-2.12 times higher than those who met recommendations (P⩽0.01). Boys between 9 and 13 years displayed urine osmolality of 777 (725-830) mmol/kg, and urine specific gravity of 1.021 (1.019-1.022), which was higher than those in girls between 9-13 years (P⩽0.015), and >27% were classified as hypohydrated despite meeting water intake recommendations. CONCLUSIONS: Failure to meet TWI-F guidelines increased calculated relative risk of hypohydration in children. Boys between 9 and 13 years are at greater hazard regardless of meeting guidelines and may require greater water intake to avoid elevated urine concentration and ensure adequate hydration.

Solution structure and dynamics of a designed hydrophobic core variant of ubiquitin.

BACKGROUND: The recent merger of computation and protein design has resulted in a burst of success in the generation of novel proteins with native-like properties. A critical component of this coupling between theory and experiment is a detailed analysis of the structures and stabilities of designed proteins to assess and improve the accuracy of design algorithms. RESULTS: Here we report the solution structure of a hydrophobic core variant of ubiquitin, referred to as 1D7, which was designed with the core-repacking algorithm ROC. As a measure of conformational specificity, we also present amide exchange protection factors and backbone and sidechain dynamics. The results indicate that 1D7 is similar to wild-type (WT) ubiquitin in backbone structure and degree of conformational specificity. We also observe a good correlation between experimentally determined sidechain structures and those predicted by ROC. However, evaluation of the core sidechain conformations indicates that, in general, 1D7 has more sidechains in less statistically favorable conformations than WT. CONCLUSIONS: Our results provide an explanation for the lower stability of 1D7 compared to WT, and suggest modifications to design algorithms that may improve the accuracy with which structure and stability are predicted. The results also demonstrate that core packing can affect conformational flexibility in subtle ways that are likely to be important for the design of function and protein-ligand interactions.

Electrophysiological study of Drosophila rhodopsin mutants.

Electrophysiological investigations were carried out on several independently isolated mutants of the ninaE gene, which encodes opsin in R1-6 photoreceptors, and a mutant of the ninaD gene, which is probably important in the formation of the rhodopsin chromophore. In these mutants, the rhodopsin content in R1-6 photoreceptors is reduced by 10(2)-10(6)-fold. Light-induced bumps recorded from even the most severely affected mutants are physiologically normal. Moreover, a detailed noise analysis shows that photoreceptor responses of both a ninaE mutant and a ninaD mutant follow the adapting bump model. Since any extensive rhodopsin-rhodopsin interactions are not likely in these mutants, the above results suggest that such interactions are not needed for the generation and adaptation of light-induced bumps. Mutant bumps are strikingly larger in amplitude than wild-type bumps. This difference is observed both in ninaD and ninaE mutants, which suggests that it is due to severe depletion of rhodopsin content, rather than to any specific alterations in the opsin protein. Lowering or buffering the intracellular calcium concentration by EGTA injection mimics the effects of the mutations on the bump amplitude, but, unlike the mutations, it also affects the latency and kinetics of light responses.

Multiple conductance states of the light-activated channel of Limulus ventral photoreceptors. Alteration of conductance state during light.

The properties of light-dependent channels in Limulus ventral photoreceptors have been studied in cell-attached patches. Two sizes of single-channel events are seen during illumination. Previous work has characterized the large (40 pS) events; the goal of the current work was to characterize the small (15 pS) events and determine their relationship to the large events. The small events are activated by light rather than as a secondary result of the change in membrane voltage during light. The mean open time of the small events is 1.34 +/- 0.49 ms (mean +/- SD, n = 15), approximately 50% of that of the large events. The large and small events have the same reversal potential and a similar dependence of open-state probability on voltage. Evidence that these events are due to different conductance states of the same channel comes from analysis of relatively infrequent events showing a direct transition between the 15 and 40-pS levels. Furthermore, large and small events do not superpose, even at positive voltages when the probability of being open is very high, as would be predicted if the two-sized events were due to independent channels. Expression of the different conductance states is not random; during steady illumination there are alternating periods of several hundred milliseconds in which there are consecutive, sequential large events followed by periods in which there are consecutive, sequential small events. At early times during the response to a step of light, the large conductance state is preferentially expressed. At later times, there is an increase in the relative contribution of the low conductance state. These findings indicate that there is a process that changes the preferred conductance state of the channel. This alteration has functional importance in the process of light adaptation.

Rotamer strain as a determinant of protein structural specificity.

We present direct evidence for a change in protein structural specificity due to hydrophobic core packing. High resolution structural analysis of a designed core variant of ubiquitin reveals that the protein is in slow exchange between two conformations. Examination of side-chain rotamers indicates that this dynamic response and the lower stability of the protein are coupled to greater strain and mobility in the core. The results suggest that manipulating the level of side-chain strain may be one way of fine tuning the stability and specificity of proteins.

An endogenous 'hypertensive factor' enhances the voltage-dependent calcium current.

The effects of an immunoaffinity-purified putative endogenous hypertensive factor (HF) on voltage-dependent calcium current in frog cardiac myocytes were assessed. In 9 out of 10 cells, HF reversibly increased the peak amplitude of the calcium current. HF increased peak calcium current density at -5 mV from a control level of 1.8 +/- 1.3 pA/pF (mean +/- SD) to 4.4 +/- 2.0 pA/pF. HF shifted the peak of the calcium current-voltage relationship in the hyperpolarizing direction. HF shifted the voltage dependence of the inactivation of the calcium current to more negative potentials with prepulses from -80 to 0 mV, but the inactivation was not affected with prepulses more positive than 0 mV. Modulation of the voltage-dependent calcium current by HF may be the mechanism underlying its pressor effects.

Characteristics of a human N-type calcium channel expressed in HEK293 cells.

The human alpha 1B-1 alpha 2b beta 1-2 Ca2+ channel was stably expressed in HEK293 cells producing a human brain N-type voltage-dependent calcium channel (VDCC). Whole cell voltage-clamp electrophysiology and fura-2 based microfluorimetry have been used to study its characteristics. Calcium currents (ICa) recorded in transfected HEK293 cells were activated at potentials more depolarized than -20 mV with peak currents occurring at approx + 10 mV in 5 mM extracellular CaCl2. ICa and associated rises in intracellular free calcium concentrations ([Ca2+]i) were sensitive to changes in both the [Ca2+]o and holding potential. Steady-state inactivation was half maximal at a holding potential of -60 mV. Ba2+ was a more effective charge carrier than Ca2+ through the alpha 1B-1 alpha 2b beta 1-2 Ca2+ channel and combinations of both Ba2+ and Ca2+ as charge carriers resulted in the anomalous mole fraction effect. Ca2+ influx into transfected HEK293 cells was irreversibly inhibited by omega-conotoxin-GVIA (omega-CgTx-GVIA; 10 nM-1 microM) and omega-conotoxin-MVIIA; 100 nM-1 microM) whereas 1 microM) whereas no reductions were seen with agents which block P or L-type Ca2+ channels. The inorganic ions, gadolinium (Gd3+), cadmium (Cd2+) and nickel (Ni2+) reduced the ICa under voltage-clamp conditions in a concentration-dependent manner. The order of potency of the three ions was Gd3+ > Cd2+ > Ni2+. These experiments suggest that the cloned and expressed alpha 1B-1 alpha 2b beta 1-2 Ca2+ channel subunits form channels in HEK293 cells that exhibit properties consistent with the activity of the native-N-type VDCC previously described in neurons.

Human neuronal voltage-dependent calcium channels: studies on subunit structure and role in channel assembly.

Voltage-dependent calcium (Ca2+) channels, expressed in the CNS, appear to be multimeric complexes comprised of at least alpha 1, alpha 2 and beta subunits. Previously, we cloned and expressed human neuronal alpha 1, alpha 2 and beta subunits to study recombinant channel complexes that display properties of those expressed in vivo. The alpha 1B-mediated channel subtype binds omega-conotoxin (CgTx) GVIA with high affinity and exhibits properties of N-type voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels. Here we describe several alpha 2 and beta splice variants and report results on the expression of omega-CgTx GVIA binding sites, assembly of the subunit complex and biophysical function of alpha 1B-mediated channel complexes containing some of these splice variants. We optimized recombinant expression in human embryonic kidney (HEK) 293 cells of alpha 1B alpha 2b beta 1 subunit complexes by controlling the expression levels of subunit mRNAs and monitored cell surface expression by binding of omega-CgTx GVIA to the alpha 1B subunit. Co-expression of either alpha 2b or beta 1 subunits with an alpha 1B subunit increased expression of binding sites while the most efficient expression was achieved when both alpha 2b and beta 1 subunits were co-expressed with an alpha 1B subunit. The presence of alpha 2b affects the affinity of omega-CgTx GVIA binding and barium (Ba2+) current magnitudes, although it does not appear to alter kinetic properties of the Ba2+ current. This is the first evidence of an alpha 2 subunit modulating the binding affinity of a cell-surface Ca2+ channel ligand. Our results demonstrate that alpha 1, alpha 2 and beta subunits together contribute to the efficient assembly and functional expression of voltage-dependent Ca2+ channel complexes.

Characterization of the recombinant human neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors alpha3beta2 and alpha4beta2 stably expressed in HEK293 cells.

HEK293 cells were stably transfected with the cDNAs encoding full-length human neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) subunit combinations alpha3beta2 or alpha4beta2. [(3)H]-(+/-)Epibatidine ([(3)H]-(+/-)EPI) bound to membranes from A3B2 (alpha3beta2) and A4B2.2 (alpha4beta2) cells with K(d) values of 7.5 and 33.4 pM and B(max) values of 497 and 1564 fmol/mg protein, respectively. Concentration-dependent increases in intracellular free Ca(2+) concentration were elicited by nAChR agonists with a rank order of potency of EPI>1,1-dimethyl-4-phenylpiperazinium (DMPP)>nicotine (NIC)=suberyldicholine (SUB)>cytisine (CYT)=acetylcholine (ACh) for A3B2 cells and EPI>CYT=SUB=NIC=DMPP>ACh for A4B2.2 cells. Antagonists of nAChRs blocked NIC-induced responses with a rank order of potency of d-tubocurarine (d-Tubo)=mecamylamine (MEC)>dihydro-beta-erythroidine (DHbetaE) in A3B2 cells and MEC=DHbetaE>d-Tubo in A4B2.2 cells. Whole-cell patch clamp recordings indicate that the decay rate of macroscopic ACh-induced currents is faster in A3B2 than in A4B2.2 cells and that A3B2 cells are less sensitive to ACh than A4B2.2 cells. ACh currents elicited in alpha3beta2 and alpha4beta2 human nAChRs are maximally potentiated at 20 and 2 mM external Ca(2+), respectively. Our results indicate that stably expressed alpha3beta2 and alpha4beta2 human nAChRs are pharmacologically and functionally distinct.

Metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 5 (mGlu5) and nociceptive function. I. Selective blockade of mGlu5 receptors in models of acute, persistent and chronic pain.

The excitatory neurotransmitter, glutamate, is particularly important in the transmission of pain information in the nervous system through the activation of ionotropic and metabotropic glutamate receptors. A potent, subtype-selective antagonist of the metabotropic glutamate-5 (mGlu5) receptor, 2-methyl-6-(phenylethynyl)-pyridine (MPEP), has now been discovered that has effective anti-hyperalgesic effects in models of inflammatory pain. MPEP did not affect rotarod locomotor performance, or normal responses to noxious mechanical or thermal stimulation in naïve rats. However, in models of inflammatory pain, systemic administration of MPEP produced effective reversal of mechanical hyperalgesia without affecting inflammatory oedema. In contrast to the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, indomethacin and diclofenac, the maximal anti-hyperalgesic effects of orally administered MPEP were observed without acute erosion of the gastric mucosa. In contrast to its effects in models of inflammatory pain, MPEP did not produce significant reversal of mechanical hyperalgesia in a rat model of neuropathic pain.

2-Methyl-6-(phenylethynyl)-pyridine (MPEP), a potent, selective and systemically active mGlu5 receptor antagonist.

In the present paper we describe 2-methyl-6-(phenylethynyl)-pyridine (MPEP) as a potent, selective and systemically active antagonist for the metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 5 (mGlu5). At the human mGlu5a receptor expressed in recombinant cells, MPEP completely inhibited quisqualate-stimulated phosphoinositide (PI) hydrolysis with an IC50 value of 36 nM while having no agonist or antagonist activities at cells expressing the human mGlu1b receptor at concentrations up to 30 microM. When tested at group II and III receptors, MPEP did not show agonist or antagonist activity at 100 microM on human mGlu2, -3, -4a, -7b, and -8a receptors nor at 10 microM on the human mGlu6 receptor. Electrophysiological recordings in Xenopus laevis oocytes demonstrated no significant effect at 100 microM on human NMDA (NMDA1A/2A), rat AMPA (Glu3-(flop)) and human kainate (Glu6-(IYQ)) receptor subtypes nor at 10 microM on the human NMDA1A/2B receptor. In rat neonatal brain slices, MPEP inhibited DHPG-stimulated PI hydrolysis with a potency and selectivity similar to that observed on human mGlu receptors. Furthermore, in extracellular recordings in the CA1 area of the hippocampus in anesthetized rats, the microiontophoretic application of DHPG induced neuronal firing that was blocked when MPEP was administered by iontophoretic or intravenous routes. Excitations induced by microiontophoretic application of AMPA were not affected.

Effect of general anesthetics on IOP in rats with experimental aqueous outflow obstruction.

PURPOSE: To determine the effect of several common general anesthetics on intraocular pressure (IOP) after experimental aqueous outflow obstruction in the rat. METHODS: A single episcleral vein injection of hypertonic saline was used to sclerose aqueous humor outflow pathways and produce elevated IOP in Brown Norway rats. Animals were housed in either standard lighting or a constant low-level light environment. Awake IOPs were determined using a TonoPen (Mentor, Norwell, MA) immediately before induction of anesthesia by either isoflurane, ketamine, or a mixture of injectable anesthetics (xylazine, ketamine, and acepromazine). For each anesthetic, IOPs were measured immediately after adequate sedation (time 0) and at 5-minute intervals, up to 20 minutes. RESULTS; Awake IOPs ranged from 18 to 52 mm Hg. All anesthetics resulted in a statistically significant (P: < 0.01) reduction in measured IOP at every duration of anesthesia when compared with the corresponding awake IOP. With increasing duration of anesthesia, measured IOP decreased approximately linearly for both the anesthetic mixture and isoflurane. However, with ketamine, IOP declined to 48% +/- 11% (standard lighting) and 60% +/- 7% (constant light) of awake levels at 5 minutes of anesthesia, where it remained stable. In fellow eyes, the SD of the mean IOP in animals under anesthesia was always greater than the corresponding SD of the awake mean. Anesthesia's effects in normal eyes and eyes with elevated IOP were indistinguishable. CONCLUSIONS: All anesthetics resulted in rapid and substantial decreases in IOP in all eyes and increased the interanimal variability in IOPs. Measurement of IOP in awake animals provides the most accurate documentation of pressure histories for rat glaucoma model studies.

Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan distribution in the primate optic nerve head.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the presence and distribution of chondroitin and dermatan sulfate-containing proteoglycans in normal human and monkey optic nerve heads by light microscopic immunohistochemistry. METHODS: Monoclonal antibodies specific for glycosaminoglycan attachment sites remaining after incubation of tissues with chondroitinase ABC and ACII were used to detect proteoglycans containing unsulfated chondroitin (OS), chondroitin-4 and/or dermatan sulfate (4S), and chondroitin-6 sulfate (6S) glycosaminoglycans. RESULTS: 4S antibody labeling after chondroitinase ABC was heavily and evenly distributed within the peripapillary sclera and in the core of laminar beams and optic nerve septa. Preincubation with chondroitinase AC, which exposes only chondroitin sulfate attachment sites, diminished labeling intensity in the lamina cribrosa and sclera and almost completely eliminated it in the retrolaminar optic nerve septa. In contrast, 6S antibodies demonstrated a more intermittent linear distribution throughout the laminar beams and optic nerve septa. No qualitative differences were seen between human and monkey optic nerve heads. CONCLUSION: Chondroitin and dermatan sulfate-containing proteoglycans exist throughout the support tissues of the optic nerve head. The specific distribution patterns demonstrated by these monoclonal antibodies, and, in particular, the unique confinement of one of them to the lamina, indicate the presence of different core proteins or different functional glycosaminoglycan side chains that may influence the behavior of the lamina cribrosa.

Patterns of intraocular pressure elevation after aqueous humor outflow obstruction in rats.

PURPOSE: To determine the diural intraocular pressure (IOP) response of Brown Norway rat eyes after sclerosis of the aqueous humor outflow pathways and its relationship to optic nerve damage. METHODS: Hypertonic saline was injected into a single episcleral vein in 17 animals and awake IOP measured in both the light and dark phases of the circadian cycle for 34 days. Mean IOP for light and dark phases during the experimental period were compared with the respective pressures of the uninjected fellow eyes. Optic nerve cross sections from each nerve were graded for injury by five independent masked observers. RESULTS: For fellow eyes, mean light- and dark-phase IOP was 21 +/- 1 and 31 +/- 1 mm Hg, respectively. For four experimental eyes, mean IOPs for both phases were not altered. Six eyes demonstrated significant mean IOP elevations only during the dark phase. Of these, five showed persistent, large circadian oscillations, and four had partial optic nerve lesions. The remaining seven eyes experienced significant IOP elevations during both phases, and all had extensive optic nerve damage. CONCLUSIONS: Episcleral vein injection of hypertonic saline is more likely to increase IOP during the dark phase than the light. This is consistent with aqueous outflow obstruction superimposed on a circadian rhythm of aqueous humor production. Because these periodic IOP elevations produced optic nerve lesions, both light- and dark-phase IOP determinations are necessary for accurate correlation of IOP history to optic nerve damage in animals housed in a light- dark environment.

Chronology of optic nerve head and retinal responses to elevated intraocular pressure.

PURPOSE: To determine the chronology of optic nerve head and retinal responses to elevated intraocular pressure (IOP). METHODS: After 1 to 39 days of unilaterally elevated IOP, experimental and fellow rat eyes were examined for morphology and immunohistochemical labeling alterations and for ganglion cell DNA fragmentation. RESULTS: Mean IOP for the experimental eyes was 36 +/- 8 mm Hg, an approximately 15-mm Hg elevation above normal values. By 7 days of pressure elevation above 40 mm Hg, endogenous immunostaining for brain-derived neurotrophic factor and neurotrophin 4/5 was absent from the nerve head and superior retina, whereas normal labeling was present in the inferior retina and distal optic nerve of these same eyes. These changes were preceded by a loss of gap junctional connexin43 labeling and astrocytic proliferation in the nerve head and by increased retinal ganglion cell layer apoptosis in the retina. Nerve head depletion of neurotrophins coincided with evidence of axonal degeneration, loss of astrocytic glial fibrillary acidic protein staining, and spread of collagen VI vascular immunolabeling. After longer durations at these same pressures, neurotrophin labeling returned to nerve head glia and scattered retinal ganglion cells. CONCLUSIONS: Optic nerve head and retinal responses, including the depletion of endogenous neurotrophins, are readily identified in the rat eye after experimental IOP elevation. However, the apparent chronology of these responses suggests that the withdrawal of neurotrophic support was not the only determinant of retinal ganglion cell apoptosis and axonal degeneration in response to pressure.

Microvasculature of the rat optic nerve head.

PURPOSE: To describe the arterial blood supply, capillary bed, and venous drainage of the rat optic nerve head. METHODS: Ocular microvascular castings from 6 Wistar rats were prepared by injection of epoxy resin through the common carotid arteries. After polymerization, tissues were digested with 6 M KOH, and the castings washed, dried, and coated for scanning electron microscopy. RESULTS: Immediately posterior to the globe, the ophthalmic artery trifurcates into the central retinal artery and two posterior ciliary arteries. The central retinal artery directly provides capillaries to the nerve fiber layer and only contributes to capillary beds in the neck of the nerve head. The remainder is supplied by branches of the posterior ciliary arteries that are analogous to the primate circle of Zinn-Haller. Arterioles arising from these branches supply the capillaries of the transitional, or laminar, region of the optic nerve head. These capillaries are continuous with those of the neck and retrobulbar optic nerve head. All optic nerve head capillaries drain into the central retinal vein and veins of the optic nerve sheath. A flat choroidal sinus communicates with the central retinal vein, the choriocapillaris, and with large veins of the optic nerve sheath. CONCLUSIONS: The microvasculature of the rat optic nerve head bears several similarities to that of the primate, with a centripetal blood supply from posterior ciliary arteries and drainage into the central retinal and optic nerve sheath veins. Association of nerve sheath veins with the choroid represents an important difference from the primate.

Changes in Thy1 gene expression associated with damaged retinal ganglion cells.

PURPOSE: The temporal series of molecular events that occur in dying retinal ganglion cells is poorly understood. We have examined the change in expression of a normally-expressed ganglion cell marker gene, Thy1, relative to the kinetics of cell loss caused by acute and chronic damaging stimuli. METHODS: For acute experiments, mice were subjected to optic nerve crush or intravitreal injections of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) to induce ganglion cell death. RNase protection analysis was used to quantify Thy1 mRNA levels from total retina RNA and in situ hybridization was used to monitor the pattern of Thy1 positive cells. Changes in Thy1 expression were compared to the time course of cell loss induced by each treatment. To induce elevated intraocular pressure (IOP), the episcleral veins of rats were injected with hypertonic saline, which scleroses Schlemm's Canal and the trabecular meshwork. Elevated IOP was monitored every day for 35 days after which the animals were sacrificed and the retinas harvested for quantitative RT-PCR or fixed for in situ hybridization studies. Evaluation of glaucomatous damage caused by elevated IOP was determined from histological sections of the optic nerves of all rat eyes. RESULTS: After optic nerve crush, Thy1 mRNA levels decreased within 24 h, although the number of expressing cells did not decline until 7 days. Both measures showed a loss of Thy1 well in advance of cell loss, which was detected by 2 weeks after surgery. This change in expression was not dependent on execution of the cell death program since a similar decrease was detected in Bax-/- ganglion cells, which are resistant to cell death induced by optic nerve crush. Thy1 mRNA levels and the number of expressing cells also decreased within 6 h after NMDA injection, in advance of cell loss, which was detected by 24 h. Similarly, elevated intraocular pressure was associated with a decrease in mRNA and expressing cells in a pressure-dependent manner. In moderately hypertensive rat eyes, the number of cells expressing Thy1 decreased before significant cell loss in the retina. Virtually no Thy1-expressing cells were detected in eyes with severe disease. CONCLUSIONS: Thy1 mRNA abundance and expressing cells, decreased in advance of detectable ganglion cell loss caused by three different modalities of damage. This change is independent of the committed step of cell death.