Implementing a telemedicine curriculum for internal medicine residents during a pandemic: the Cleveland Clinic experience.

Telemedicine training was not a substantial element of most residency programmes prior to the COVID-19 pandemic. Social distancing measures changed this. The Cleveland Clinic Internal Medicine Residency Programme (IMRP) is one of the largest programmes in the USA, which made the task of implementing a telemedicine curriculum more complex. Here we describe our experience implementing an effective, expedited telemedicine curriculum for our ambulatory resident clinics. This study was started in April 2020 when we implemented a resident-led curriculum and training programme for providing ambulatory telemedicine care. The curriculum was finalised in less than 5 weeks. It entailed introducing a formal training programme for residents, creating a resource guide for different video communication tools and training preceptors to safely supervise care in this new paradigm. Residents were surveyed before the curriculum to assess prior experience with telemedicine, and then afterward to assess the curriculum's effectiveness. We also created a mini-CEX assessment for residents to solicit feedback on their performance during virtual appointments. Over 2000 virtual visits were performed by residents in a span of 10 weeks. Of 148 residents, 38% responded to the pre-participation survey. A majority had no prior telemedicine experience and expressed only slight comfort with the modality. Through collaboration with experienced residents and faculty, we expeditiously deployed an enhancement to our ambulatory care curriculum to teach residents how to provide virtual care and help faculty with supervision. We share our insights on this experience for other residency programmes to use.

Cause-Specific Mortality in Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease and Atrial Fibrillation.

BACKGROUND: Atrial fibrillation (AF) is associated with death in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). We examined the associations between AF and cause-specific mortality in a large CKD population. METHODS: We included 62,459 patients with estimated glomerular filtration rate 15-59 mL/min/1.73 m2 (6,639 patients with AF and 55,820 without AF) followed in a large health care system. Outcomes included overall and cause-specific deaths (a) cardiovascular; (b) malignancy; and (c) non-cardiovascular/non-malignancy causes. Cox regression models for overall mortality and separate competing risk models for each major cause of death category were used to evaluate their respective associations with AF. RESULTS: During a median follow-up of 4.1 years, 19,094 patients died; cause of death was known for 18,854 patients. After multivariable adjustment (demographics, comorbidities, relevant laboratory data, medication use, and kidney function), AF was associated with 23% (95% CI 18-29%) higher risk of all-cause mortality, 45% (95% CI 31-61%) higher risk of cardiovascular mortality and 13% (95% CI 3-22%) lower risk of malignancy-related mortality. Exclusion of patients with malignancy yielded similar results except for a lack of association between AF and malignancy-related deaths. Results were consistent across various stages of CKD. CONCLUSIONS: In a non-dialysis-dependent CKD population, the presence of AF was associated with higher all-cause and cardiovascular mortality. These data suggest that patients with both CKD and AF are at high cardiovascular risk, and thus clinical practice (or trials) should aim at reducing the overall excess cardiovascular mortality (not stroke alone) in patients with AF and CKD.

Provider Variation in Antibiotic Prescribing and Outcomes of Respiratory Tract Infections.

OBJECTIVES: Inappropriate antibiotic use for respiratory tract infection (RTI) is an ongoing problem linked to the emergence of drug resistance and other adverse effects. Less is known about the prescribing practices of individual physicians or the impact of physician prescribing habits on patient outcomes. We studied the prescribing practices of providers for acute RTIs in an integrated health system, identified patient factors associated with receipt of an antibiotic and assessed the relation between providers' adjusted prescribing rates and a number of patient outcomes. METHODS: This was a retrospective analysis of adults with an RTI visit to any primary care providers across the Cleveland Clinic Health System in 2011-2012. Patients with a history of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or immunocompromised status were excluded. Logistic regression was used to examine patient factors associated with receipt of an antibiotic. RESULTS: Of 31,416 patients with an RTI, 54.8% received an antibiotic. Patient factors associated with antibiotic prescribing included white race (odds ratio [OR] 1.35, P < 0.001), presence of fever (OR 1.66, P < 0.001), and a diagnosis of bronchitis (OR 10.98, P < 0.001) or sinusitis (OR 33.85, P < 0.001). Among 290 providers with ≥10 RTI visits, adjusted antibiotic prescribing rates ranged from 0% to 100% (mean 49%). Antibiotics were prescribed more often for sinusitis (OR 33.85, P < 0.001), bronchitis (OR 10.98, P < 0.001), or pharyngitis (OR 1.76, P < 0.001) compared with upper respiratory tract infection. Patients who were prescribed antibiotics at the index visit were more likely to return for RTI within 1 year (adjusted OR 1.26, P < 0.001). Emergency department visits for respiratory complications were rare and not associated with antibiotic receipt. CONCLUSIONS: Antibiotic prescribing for RTI varies widely among physicians and cannot be explained by patient factors. Patients prescribed antibiotics for RTI were more likely to return for RTI.

Blood pressure parameters are associated with all-cause and cause-specific mortality in chronic kidney disease.

Previous observational studies reported J or U-shaped associations between blood pressure parameters and mortality in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). Here we examined the associations of different blood pressure levels with various causes of death in a CKD population that included patients with eGFR 15-59 ml/min/1.73 m2 with underlying hypertension receiving at least one antihypertensive agent. We obtained data on date and cause of death from State Department of Health mortality files and classified deaths into three categories: cardiovascular, malignancy-related, and non-cardiovascular/non-malignancy related. Cox models were fitted for overall mortality, and separate competing risk regression models for each major cause of death category, to evaluate their associations with various systolic and diastolic blood pressures. During a median follow-up of 3.9 years, 13,332 of 45,412 patients died. Systolic blood pressures under 100, 100-109, 110-119, and over 150 (vs. 130-139 mm Hg) were associated with higher all-cause and cardiovascular mortality. Systolic blood pressures under 100 mm Hg and 100-109 were associated with higher non-cardiovascular/non-malignancy related mortality. Diastolic blood pressures under 50 and 50-59 (vs. 70-79 mm Hg) were associated with higher all-cause and non-cardiovascular/non-malignancy-related mortality while diastolic blood pressures over 90 mm Hg was associated with higher cardiovascular but lower non-cardiovascular/non-malignancy related mortality. Thus, in a non-dialysis dependent CKD population, systolic blood pressures under 110 and over 150 mm Hg were associated with cardiovascular and non-cardiovascular/non-malignancy related deaths. However, diastolic blood pressure under 60 mm Hg was associated in contrast with all-cause mortality and non-cardiovascular/non-malignancy-related deaths.

Diabetes Control and the Risks of ESRD and Mortality in Patients With CKD.

BACKGROUND: Diabetes is the leading cause of end-stage renal disease (ESRD) and a significant contributor to mortality in the general population. We examined the associations of hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) levels with ESRD and death in a population with diabetes and chronic kidney disease (CKD). STUDY DESIGN: Cohort study. SETTING & PARTICIPANTS: 6,165 patients with diabetes (treated with oral hypoglycemic agents and/or insulin) and CKD stages 1 to 5 at a large health care system. PREDICTOR: HbA1c level (examined as a categorical and continuous measure). OUTCOMES: All-cause and cause-specific mortality ascertained from the Ohio Department of Health mortality files and ESRD ascertained from the US Renal Data System. RESULTS: During a median 2.3 years of follow-up, 957 patients died (887 pre-ESRD deaths) and 205 patients reached ESRD. In a Cox proportional hazards model, after multivariable adjustment including for kidney function, HbA1c level < 6% was associated with higher risk for death when compared with HbA1c levels of 6% to 6.9% (HR, 1.23; 95% CI, 1.01-1.50). Similarly, HbA1c level ≥ 9% was associated with higher risk for all-cause death (HR, 1.34; 95% CI, 1.06-1.69). In competing-risk models, baseline HbA1c level was not associated with ESRD. For cause-specific mortality, diabetes accounted for >12% of deaths overall and >19% of deaths among those with HbA1c levels > 9%. LIMITATIONS: Small proportion of participants with advanced kidney disease; single-center population. CONCLUSIONS: In this cohort of patients with CKD with diabetes, HbA1c levels < 6% and ≥9% were associated with higher risk for death. HbA1c levels were not associated with ESRD in this specific CKD population. Diabetes-related deaths increased with higher HbA1c levels.

Impact of Uric Acid Levels on Kidney Disease Progression.

BACKGROUND: Hyperuricemia is associated with the progression of chronic kidney disease (CKD), but it is not known whether the relationship is causal. We examined the association of hyperuricemia and uric acid lowering therapy (UALT) with progression of CKD in patients with CKD 3 and 4 in the Cleveland Clinic CKD registry. METHODS: We included 1,676 patients with CKD stages 3 and 4 from Ohio, who had measured their uric acid (UA) levels a year prior to the recording of the second eGFR <60 mL/min/1.73 m2, and follow-up eGFR, between 2005 and 2009. Our primary composite outcome included a 50% drop in eGFR or progression to ESRD. Secondary outcomes included the rate of decline in eGFR, all-cause mortality, progression to ESRD, and a composite measure of progression to ESRD or death. We assessed the association between UA, UALT, and outcomes using Cox models and competing risks regression models. RESULTS: In multivariable models, higher UA was associated with the composite endpoint, but it reached statistical significance only in the 4th quartile (≥8.9 mg/dL). Receipt of UALT was significantly associated with increased risk of the composite outcome. Neither UA nor UALT (considered a time-dependent covariate) was significantly associated with mortality. The inference was similar for UA as high vs. low, quartiles, or continuous. Similarly, neither high UA nor UALT were significantly associated with ESRD, the composite of ESRD and mortality, or eGFR decline. CONCLUSIONS: Hyperuricemia is associated with increased risk of progression to ESRD in patients with CKD stages 3 and 4, but UALT does not ameliorate the risk, suggesting that the relationship is not causal.

Associations of dysnatremias with mortality in chronic kidney disease.

BACKGROUND: Hyponatremia and hypernatremia are associated with death in the general population and those with chronic kidney disease (CKD). We studied the associations between dysnatremias, all-cause mortality and causes of death in a large cohort of Stage 3 and 4 CKD patients. METHODS: We included 45 333 patients with Stage 3 and 4 CKDs followed in a large healthcare system. Associations between hyponatremia (<136 mmol/L) and hypernatremia (>145), and all-cause mortality and causes of death (cardiovascular, malignancy related and non-cardiovascular/non-malignancy related) were studied using Cox proportional hazards and competing risk models. RESULTS: Dysnatremias were found in 9.2% of the study population. In separate multivariable Cox proportional hazards models using baseline serum sodium levels and time-dependent repeated measures, both hyponatremia and hypernatremia were associated with all-cause mortality. In the competing risk analyses, hyponatremia was significantly associated with increased risk for various cause-specific mortality categories [cardiovascular (hazard ratio, HR 1.16, 95% confidence interval, CI: 1.04, 1.30), malignancy related (HR 1.48, 95% CI: 1.33, 1.65) and non-cardiovascular/non-malignancy deaths (HR 1.25, 95% CI: 1.13, 1.39)], while hypernatremia was significantly associated with higher non-cardiovascular/non-malignancy mortality only (HR 1.36, 95% CI: 1.08, 1.72). CONCLUSIONS: In those with CKD, hyponatremia was associated with all-cause mortality, cardiovascular, malignancy and non-cardiovascular/non-malignancy-related deaths. Hypernatremia was associated with all-cause and non-cardiovascular/non-malignancy-related deaths. Further studies are needed to elucidate the mechanisms of differences in cause-specific death among CKD patients with hyponatremia and hypernatremia.

Mortality Outcomes of Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease.

BACKGROUND: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is associated with higher mortality in the general population. We studied the associations between COPD and death among chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients along with reporting cause-specific death data. METHODS: We included 56,960 patients with stages 3 and 4 CKD who were followed in a large health care system. Associations between COPD and all-cause mortality and various causes of death (respiratory deaths, cardiovascular deaths, malignancy-related deaths and deaths due to other reasons) were studied using the Cox proportional hazards and competing risk models. RESULTS: Out of 56,960 CKD patients, 4.7% (n = 2,667) had underlying COPD. Old age, presence of diabetes, hypertension, coronary artery disease, congestive heart failure, and smoking were associated with higher risk for COPD. During a median follow-up of 3.7 years, 15,969 patients died. After covariate adjustment, COPD was associated with a 41% increased risk (95% CI 1.31-1.52) for all-cause mortality, and fourfold increased risk (sub-hazard ratio 4.36, 95% CI 3.54-5.37) for respiratory-related deaths. In a sensitivity analysis that was performed by defining COPD as the use of relevant International Classification of Diseases-9 codes and medications used to treat COPD, similar results were noted. CONCLUSIONS: COPD is associated with higher risk for death among those with CKD, and an underlying lung disease accounts for significant proportion of deaths. These data highlight the need for further prospective studies to understand the underlying mechanisms and potential interventions to improve outcomes in this population.

Cause-Specific Deaths in Non-Dialysis-Dependent CKD.

CKD is associated with higher risk of death, but details regarding differences in cause-specific death in CKD are unclear. We examined the leading causes of death among a non-dialysis-dependent CKD population using an electronic medical record-based CKD registry in a large healthcare system and the Ohio Department of Health mortality files. We included 33,478 white and 5042 black patients with CKD who resided in Ohio between January 2005 and September 2009 and had two measurements of eGFR<60 ml/min per 1.73 m(2) obtained 90 days apart. Causes of death (before ESRD) were classified into cardiovascular, malignancy, and non-cardiovascular/non-malignancy diseases and non-disease-related causes. During a median follow-up of 2.3 years, 6661 of 38,520 patients (17%) with CKD died. Cardiovascular diseases (34.7%) and malignant neoplasms (31.8%) were the leading causes of death, with malignancy-related deaths more common among those with earlier stages of kidney disease. After adjusting for covariates, each 5 ml/min per 1.73 m(2) decline in eGFR was associated with higher risk of death due to cardiovascular disease (hazard ratio [HR], 1.10; 95% confidence interval [95% CI], 1.08 to 1.12) and non-cardiovascular/non-malignancy diseases (HR, 1.12; 95% CI, 1.09 to 1.14) but not to malignancy. In the adjusted models, blacks had overall-mortality hazard ratios similar to those of whites but higher hazard ratios for cardiovascular deaths. Further studies to confirm these findings and explain the mechanisms for differences are warranted. In addition to lowering cardiovascular burden in CKD, efforts to target known risk factors for cancer at the population level are needed.

Serum Potassium, End-Stage Renal Disease and Mortality in Chronic Kidney Disease.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Hypokalemia and hyperkalemia are often noted in chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients, but their impact on mortality and end-stage renal disease (ESRD) is less well understood. We aimed at studying the associations between potassium disorders, and mortality and progression to ESRD in a CKD population. METHODS: Using our electronic health record-based CKD registry, 36,359 patients with eGFR <60 ml/min/1.73 m(2) and potassium levels measured from January 1, 2005 to September 15, 2009 were identified. We examined factors associated with hypokalemia (<3.5 mmol/l) and hyperkalemia (>5.0 mmol/l) using logistic regression models and associations between serum potassium levels (both as continuous and categorical variables) and all-cause mortality or ESRD using Cox-proportional hazards models. RESULTS: Serum potassium <3.5 mmol/l was noted among 3% and >5.0 mmol/l among 11% of the study population. In the multivariable logistic regression analysis, lower eGFR, diabetes and use of ACE inhibitors or Angiotensin-Receptor Blockers were associated with higher odds of having hyperkalemia. Heart failure and African American race were factors associated with higher odds of hypokalemia. After adjustment for covariates including kidney function, serum potassium <4.0 and >5.0 mmol/l were significantly associated with increased mortality risk, but there was no increased risk for progression to ESRD. Time-dependent repeated measures analysis confirmed these findings. When potassium was examined as a continuous variable, there was a U-shaped association between serum potassium levels and mortality. CONCLUSION: In patients with stage 3-4 CKD, serum potassium levels <4.0 and >5.0 mmol/l are associated with higher mortality but not with ESRD.

Development of a chronic kidney disease patient navigator program.

BACKGROUND: Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) is a public health problem and there is a scarcity of type 2 CKD translational research that incorporates educational tools. Patient navigators have been shown to be effective at reducing disparities and improving outcomes in the oncology field. We describe the creation of a CKD Patient Navigator program designed to help coordinate care, address system-barriers, and educate/motivate patients. METHODS: The conceptual framework for the CKD Patient Navigator Program is rooted in the Chronic Care Model that has a main goal of high-quality chronic disease management. Our established multidisciplinary CKD research team enlisted new members from information technology and data management to help create the program. It encompassed three phases: hiring, training, and implementation. For hiring, we wanted a non-medical or lay person with a college degree that possessed strong interpersonal skills and experience in a service-orientated field. For training, there were three key areas: general patient navigator training, CKD education, and electronic health record (EHR) training. For implementation, we defined barriers of care and created EHR templates for which pertinent study data could be extracted. RESULTS: We have hired two CKD patient navigators who will be responsible for navigating CKD patients enrolled in a clinical trial. They have undergone training in general patient navigation, specific CKD education through directed readings and clinical shadowing, as well as EHR and other patient related privacy and research training. CONCLUSIONS: The need for novel approaches like our CKD patient navigator program designed to impact CKD care is vital and should utilize team-based care and health information technology given the changing landscape of our health systems.

Comparative effectiveness of early versus conventional timing of dialysis initiation in advanced CKD.

BACKGROUND: Previous observational studies examining outcomes associated with the timing of dialysis therapy initiation in the United States have often been limited by lead time and survivor bias. STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study comparing the effectiveness of early versus later (conventional) dialysis therapy initiation in advanced chronic kidney disease (CKD). The analysis used inverse probability weighting to account for an individual's contribution to different exposure groups over time in a pooled logistic regression model. Patients contributed risk to both exposure categories (early and later initiation) until there was a clear treatment strategy (ie, dialysis therapy was initiated early or estimated glomerular filtration rate [eGFR] decreased to <10mL/min/1.73m(2)). SETTING & PARTICIPANTS: Patients with CKD who had at least one face-to-face outpatient encounter with a Cleveland Clinic health care provider as of January 1, 2005, and at least 3 eGFRs in the range of 20-30mL/min/1.73m(2) measured at least 180 days apart. PREDICTORS: Timing of dialysis therapy initiation as determined using model-based interpolation of eGFR trajectories over time. Timing was defined as early (interpolated eGFR at dialysis therapy initiation≥10mL/min/1.73m(2)) or later (eGFR < 10mL/min/1.73m(2)) and was time-varying. OUTCOMES: Death from any cause occurring from the time that eGFR was equal to 20mL/min/1.73m(2) through September 15, 2009. RESULTS: The study population consisted of 652 patients meeting inclusion criteria. Most (71.3%) of the study population did not initiate dialysis therapy during follow-up. Patients who did not initiate dialysis therapy (n=465) were older, more likely to be white, and had more favorable laboratory profiles than those who started dialysis therapy. Overall, 146 initiated dialysis early and 80 had eGFRs decrease to <10mL/min/1.73m(2). Many participants (n=426) were censored prior to attaining a clear treatment strategy and were considered undeclared. There was no statistically significant survival difference for the early compared with later initiation strategy (OR, 0.85; 95% CI, 0.65-1.11). LIMITATIONS: Interpolated eGFR, moderate sample size, and likely unmeasured confounders. CONCLUSIONS: In patients with advanced CKD, timing of dialysis therapy initiation was not associated with mortality when accounting for lead time bias and survivor bias.

Chronic kidney disease in an electronic health record problem list: quality of care, ESRD, and mortality.

BACKGROUND: Whether chronic kidney disease (CKD) recognition in an electronic health record (EHR) problem list improves processes of care or clinical outcomes of end-stage renal disease (ESRD) and death is unclear. METHODS: We identified patients who had at least 1 year of follow-up (2005-2009) in our EHR-based CKD registry (n = 25,742). CKD recognition was defined by having ICD-9 codes for CKD, diabetic kidney disease, or hypertensive kidney disease in the problem list. We calculated proportions of patients with and without CKD recognition and examined differences by demographics, clinical factors, and development of ESRD or mortality. We evaluated differences in the proportion of patients with CKD-specific laboratory results checked before and after recognition among cases and propensity-matched controls. RESULTS: Only 11% (n = 2,735) had CKD recognition in the problem list and they were younger (68 vs. 71 years), a higher proportion were male (61 vs. 37%) and African-American (21 vs. 10%) compared to those unrecognized. CKD-specific laboratory results for patients with estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) 30-59 including intact parathyroid hormone (23 vs. 6%), vitamin D (22 vs. 18%), phosphorus (29 vs. 7%), and a urine check for proteinuria (55 vs. 36%) were significantly more likely to be done among those with CKD recognition (all p < 0.05). Similar results were found for eGFR <30 except for proteinuria and in our propensity score-matched control analysis. There was no independent association of CKD recognition with ESRD or mortality. CONCLUSIONS: CKD recognition in the EHR problem list was low, but translated into more CKD-specific processes of care; however ESRD or mortality were not affected.

All-cause, cardiovascular, and cancer mortality in western Alaska Native people: western Alaska Tribal Collaborative for Health (WATCH).

OBJECTIVES: We determined all-cause, cardiovascular disease (CVD), and cancer mortality in western Alaska Native people and examined agreement between death certificate information and adjudicated cause of deaths. METHODS: Data from 4 cohort studies were consolidated. Death certificates and medical records were reviewed and adjudicated according to standard criteria. We compared adjudicated CVD and cancer deaths with death certificates by calculating sensitivity, specificity, predictive values, and κ statistics. RESULTS: Men (n = 2116) and women (n = 2453), aged 18 to 95 years, were followed an average of 6.7 years. The major cause of death in men was trauma (25%), followed by CVD (19%) and cancer (13%). The major cause of death in women was CVD (24%), followed by cancer (19%) and trauma (8%). Stroke rates in both genders were higher than those of US Whites. Only 56% of deaths classified as CVD by death certificate were classified as CVD by standard criteria; discordance was higher among men (55%) than women (32%; κs = 0.4 and 0.7). CONCLUSIONS: We found lower rates for coronary heart disease death but high rates of stroke mortality. Death certificates overestimated CVD mortality; concordance between the 2 methods is better for cancer mortality. The results point to the importance of cohort studies in this population in providing data to assist in health care planning.

Electronic health records: a new tool to combat chronic kidney disease?

Electronic health records (EHRs) were first developed in the 1960s as clinical information systems for document storage and retrieval. Adoption of EHRs has increased in the developed world and is increasing in developing countries. Studies have shown that quality of patient care is improved among health centers with EHRs. In this article, we review the structure and function of EHRs along with an examination of its potential application in CKD care and research. Well-designed patient registries using EHRs data allow for improved aggregation of patient data for quality improvement and to facilitate clinical research. Preliminary data from the United States and other countries have demonstrated that CKD care might improve with use of EHRs-based programs. We recently developed a CKD registry derived from EHRs data at our institution and complimented the registry with other patient details from the United States Renal Data System and the Social Security Death Index. This registry allows us to conduct a EHRs-based clinical trial that examines whether empowering patients with a personal health record or patient navigators improves CKD care, along with identifying participants for other clinical trials and conducting health services research. EHRs use have shown promising results in some settings, but not in others, perhaps attributed to the differences in EHRs adoption rates and varying functionality. Thus, future studies should explore the optimal methods of using EHRs to improve CKD care and research at the individual patient level, health system and population levels.

Estimated GFR and incident cardiovascular disease events in American Indians: the Strong Heart Study.

BACKGROUND: In populations with high prevalences of diabetes and obesity, estimating glomerular filtration rate (GFR) by using the Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration (CKD-EPI) equation may predict cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk better than by using the Modification of Diet in Renal Disease (MDRD) Study equation. STUDY DESIGN: Longitudinal cohort study comparing the association of GFR estimated using either the CKD-EPI or MDRD Study equation with incident CVD outcomes. SETTING & PARTICIPANTS: American Indians participating in the Strong Heart Study, a longitudinal population-based cohort with high prevalences of diabetes, CVD, and CKD. PREDICTOR: Estimated GFR (eGFR) predicted using the CKD-EPI and MDRD Study equations. OUTCOMES: Fatal and nonfatal cardiovascular events, consisting of coronary heart disease, stroke, and heart failure. MEASUREMENTS: The association between eGFR and outcomes was explored in Cox proportional hazards models adjusted for traditional risk factors and albuminuria; the net reclassification index and integrated discrimination improvement were determined for the CKD-EPI versus MDRD Study equations. RESULTS: In 4,549 participants, diabetes was present in 45%; CVD, in 7%; and stages 3-5 CKD, in 10%. During a median of 15 years, there were 1,280 cases of incident CVD, 929 cases of incident coronary heart disease, 305 cases of incident stroke, and 381 cases of incident heart failure. Reduced eGFR (<90 mL/min/1.73 m2) was associated with adverse events in most models. Compared with the MDRD Study equation, the CKD-EPI equation correctly reclassified 17.0% of 2,151 participants without incident CVD to a lower risk (higher eGFR) category and 1.3% (n=28) were reclassified incorrectly to a higher risk (lower eGFR) category. LIMITATIONS: Single measurements of eGFR and albuminuria at study visits. CONCLUSIONS: Although eGFR based on either equation had similar associations with incident CVD, coronary heart disease, stroke, and heart failure events, in those not having events, reclassification of participants to eGFR categories was superior using the CKD-EPI equation compared with the MDRD Study equation.

Serum triglycerides and risk for death in Stage 3 and Stage 4 chronic kidney disease.

BACKGROUND: An elevated triglyceride level is associated with cardiovascular and all-cause mortality in the general population. The associations between serum triglyceride and all-cause mortality among patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) are unclear. METHODS: Patients with Stage 3 and Stage 4 CKD (estimated glomerular filtration rate 15-59 mL/min/1.73 m(2)) who had serum triglycerides measured prior to being classified as CKD were included. We examined the associations of serum triglyceride levels with all-cause mortality among 25 641 Stage 3 and Stage 4 CKD patients using Cox proportional hazard models and Kaplan-Meier survival curves. RESULTS: In the Cox model, after adjusting for relevant covariates including other lipid parameters, serum triglyceride level 150-199 mg/dL was not associated with death [hazard ratio (HR) 1.00, 95% confidence interval (95% CI) 0.92-1.10] relative to serum triglyceride <150 mg/dL while serum triglyceride ≥ 200 mg/dL was associated with a 11% increased hazard for death (95% CI 1.01-1.22). Age modified the association between serum triglyceride levels ≥ 200 mg/dL and mortality with patients <65 years having a 38% higher hazard for death (95% CI 1.15-1.65) and ≥ 65 years with no increased risk for death (HR 0.97, 95% CI 0.88-1.08, P for interaction <0.001). When serum triglycerides were examined as a continuous log-transformed variable, similar associations with mortality were noted. CONCLUSIONS: Serum triglyceride ≥ 200 mg/dL was independently associated with all-cause mortality in Stage 3 and Stage 4 CKD patients aged <65 years but not among patients of age ≥ 65 years. Future studies should confirm these findings and examine the mechanisms that may explain these associations.

Association between fish consumption and nephropathy in American Indians--the Strong Heart Study.

OBJECTIVE: The present study examined the association between fish consumption and nephropathy in American Indians. METHODS: In the family cohort of the Strong Heart Study, we investigated 2,261 participants with baseline examination between 2001 and 2003 and follow-up examination between 2006 and 2008. The average follow-up period was 5.4 years. We defined fish consumption as the sum of dietary intake of tuna, fried fish, and nonfried fish obtained from a validated food frequency questionnaire. Nephropathy was defined as microalbuminuria (urinary albumin-creatinine ratio [ACR]: 30 to 299 mg/g), macroalbuminuria (urinary ACR: ≥ 300 mg/g), or an estimated glomerular filtration rate of <60 mL/min/1.73 m(2). Using regression models, we examined the association between fish consumption measured at baseline and 2 outcomes in nephropathy present at follow-up, albuminuria, or renal impairment, and change in urinary ACR or estimated glomerular filtration rate between baseline and follow-up examinations. RESULTS: The prevalence of microalbuminuria, macroalbuminuria, and renal impairment was 13%, 3%, and 4%, respectively. The fish items consumed by the participants were predominantly deep-fried. We found no associations between fish consumption and any measure of nephropathy after adjusting for demographic, clinical, lifestyle, and dietary factors. CONCLUSIONS: Dietary intake of predominantly fried fish was not associated with a lower risk of nephropathy in American Indians.

Regional differences in dialysis care and mortality among American Indians and Alaska Natives.

American Indians/Alaska Natives (AIANs) compose a heterogeneous population that includes geographically distinct tribal communities, many with high rates of ESRD. Regional features of dialysis care and mortality are unknown in this population. Here, we describe the structure of dialysis care and mortality of adult AIANs who initiated maintenance dialysis during 1995-2008 in different regions of the US. Overall, 13,716 AIANs received dialysis at 2054 facilities. Approximately 10% (n = 197) of these facilities provided care to two-thirds (n = 9011) of AIANs. AIANs from the Southwest and Alaska were concentrated in relatively few dialysis facilities whereas those in the Eastern US and Pacific Coast were distributed more diffusely. Despite comparably high rates of poverty, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease, annual mortality rates were lower in the Southwest (13.9%) compared with the Southern Plains (23.2%), Alaska (21.2%), Eastern US (20.0%), Northern Plains (20.8%), and Pacific Coast (22.0%). These regional differences were consistent over time and persisted after adjusting for sociodemographic and clinical variables and area-based poverty. In conclusion, regional differences in the structure of dialysis care and patient mortality exist among AIANs. Southwestern AIANs experience the highest concentration of dialysis care and the lowest mortality. Our findings suggest that an area-based approach examining the care structure of relatively few dialysis facilities may delineate determinants of these differences and improve the quality of care to many AIAN communities.