Clinical outcomes and programming strategies of implantable cardioverter-defibrillator devices in paediatric hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: a UK National Cohort Study.

AIMS: Sudden cardiac death (SCD) is the most common mode of death in paediatric hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM). This study describes the implant and programming strategies with clinical outcomes following implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD) insertion in a well-characterized national paediatric HCM cohort. METHODS AND RESULTS: Data from 90 patients undergoing ICD insertion at a median age 13 (±3.5) for primary (n = 67, 74%) or secondary prevention (n = 23, 26%) were collected from a retrospective, longitudinal multi-centre cohort of children (<16 years) with HCM from the UK. Seventy-six (84%) had an endovascular system [14 (18%) dual coil], 3 (3%) epicardial, and 11 (12%) subcutaneous system. Defibrillation threshold (DFT) testing was performed at implant in 68 (76%). Inadequate DFT in four led to implant adjustment in three patients. Over a median follow-up of 54 months (interquartile range 28-111), 25 (28%) patients had 53 appropriate therapies [ICD shock n = 45, anti-tachycardia pacing (ATP) n = 8], incidence rate 4.7 per 100 patient years (95% CI 2.9-7.6). Eight inappropriate therapies occurred in 7 (8%) patients (ICD shock n = 4, ATP n = 4), incidence rate 1.1/100 patient years (95% CI 0.4-2.5). Three patients (3%) died following arrhythmic events, despite a functioning device. Other device complications were seen in 28 patients (31%), including lead-related complications (n = 15) and infection (n = 10). No clinical, device, or programming characteristics predicted time to inappropriate therapy or lead complication. CONCLUSION: In a large national cohort of paediatric HCM patients with an ICD, device and programming strategies varied widely. No particular strategy was associated with inappropriate therapies, missed/delayed therapies, or lead complications.

Clinical presentation and survival of childhood hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: a retrospective study in United Kingdom.

AIMS: Understanding the spectrum of disease, symptom burden and natural history are essential for the management of children with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM). The effect of changing screening practices over time has not previously been studied. This study describes the clinical characteristics and outcomes of childhood HCM over four decades in a well-characterized United Kingdom cohort. METHODS AND RESULTS: Six hundred and eighty-seven patients with HCM presented at a median age of 5.2 years (range 0-16). Aetiology was: non-syndromic (n = 433, 63%), RASopathy (n = 126, 18.3%), Friedreich's ataxia (n = 59, 8.6%) or inborn errors of metabolism (IEM) (n = 64, 9%). In infants (n = 159, 23%) underlying aetiology was more commonly a RASopathy (42% vs. 11.2%, P < 0.0001) or IEM (18.9% vs. 6.4% P < 0.0001). In those with familial disease, median age of presentation was higher (11 years vs. 6 years, P < 0.0001), 141 (58%) presented <12 years. Freedom from death or transplantation was 90.6% (87.9-92.7%) at 5 years (1.5 per 100 patient years) with no era effect. Mortality was most frequently sudden cardiac death (SCD) (n = 20, 2.9%). Children diagnosed during infancy or with an IEM had a worse prognosis (5-year survival 80.5% or 66.4%). Arrhythmic events occurred at a rate of 1.2 per 100 patient years and were more likely in non-syndromic patients (n = 51, 88%). CONCLUSION: This national study describes a heterogeneous disease whose outcomes depend on the age of presentation and aetiology. Overall mortality and SCD rates have not changed over time, but they remain higher than in adults with HCM, with events occurring in syndromic and non-syndromic patients.

A validation study of the European Society of Cardiology guidelines for risk stratification of sudden cardiac death in childhood hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.

AIMS: Sudden cardiac death (SCD) is the most common cause of death in children with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM). The European Society of Cardiology (ESC) recommends consideration of an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD) if two or more clinical risk factors (RFs) are present, but this approach to risk stratification has not been formally validated. METHODS AND RESULTS: Four hundred and eleven paediatric HCM patients were assessed for four clinical RFs in accordance with current ESC recommendations: severe left ventricular hypertrophy, unexplained syncope, non-sustained ventricular tachycardia, and family history of SCD. The primary endpoint was a composite outcome of SCD or an equivalent event (aborted cardiac arrest, appropriate ICD therapy, or sustained ventricular tachycardia), defined as a major arrhythmic cardiac event (MACE). Over a follow-up period of 2890 patient years (median 5.5 years), MACE occurred in 21 patients (7.5%) with 0 RFs, 19 (16.8%) with 1 RFs, and 3 (18.8%) with 2 or more RFs. Corresponding incidence rates were 1.13 [95% confidence interval (CI) 0.7-1.73], 2.07 (95% CI 1.25-3.23), and 2.52 (95% CI 0.53-7.35) per 100 patient years at risk. Patients with two or more RFs did not have a higher incidence of MACE (log-rank test P = 0.34), with a positive and negative predictive value of 19% and 90%, respectively. The C-statistic was 0.62 (95% CI 0.52-0.72) at 5 years. CONCLUSIONS: The incidence of MACE is higher for patients with increasing numbers of clinical RFs. However, the current ESC guidelines have a low ability to discriminate between high- and low-risk individuals.

Natural history and outcomes in paediatric RASopathy-associated hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.

AIMS: This study aimed to describe the natural history and predictors of all-cause mortality and sudden cardiac death (SCD)/equivalent events in children with a RASopathy syndrome and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM). METHODS AND RESULTS: This is a retrospective cohort study from 14 paediatric cardiology centres in the United Kingdom and Ireland. We included children <18 years with HCM and a clinical and/or genetic diagnosis of a RASopathy syndrome [Noonan syndrome (NS), NS with multiple lentigines (NSML), Costello syndrome (CS), cardiofaciocutaneous syndrome (CFCS), and NS with loose anagen hair (NS-LAH)]. One hundred forty-nine patients were recruited [111 (74.5%) NS, 12 (8.05%) NSML, 6 (4.03%) CS, 6 (4.03%) CFCS, 11 (7.4%) Noonan-like syndrome, and 3 (2%) NS-LAH]. NSML patients had higher left ventricular outflow tract (LVOT) gradient values [60 (36-80) mmHg, P = 0.004]. Over a median follow-up of 197.5 [inter-quartile range (IQR) 93.58-370] months, 23 patients (15.43%) died at a median age of 24.1 (IQR 5.6-175.9) months. Survival was 96.45% [95% confidence interval (CI) 91.69-98.51], 90.42% (95% CI 84.04-94.33), and 84.12% (95% CI 75.42-89.94) at 1, 5, and 10 years, respectively, but this varied by RASopathy syndrome. RASopathy syndrome, symptoms at baseline, congestive cardiac failure (CCF), non-sustained ventricular tachycardia (NSVT), and maximal left ventricular wall thickness were identified as predictors of all-cause mortality on univariate analysis, and CCF, NSVT, and LVOT gradient were predictors for SCD or equivalent event. CONCLUSIONS: These findings highlight a distinct category of patients with Noonan-like syndrome with a milder HCM phenotype but significantly worse survival and identify potential predictors of adverse outcome in patients with RASopathy-related HCM.

COVID-19 in congenital heart disease (COaCHeD) study.

BACKGROUND: COVID-19 has caused significant worldwide morbidity and mortality. Congenital heart disease (CHD) is likely to increase vulnerability and understanding the predictors of adverse outcomes is key to optimising care. OBJECTIVE: Ascertain the impact of COVID-19 on people with CHD and define risk factors for adverse outcomes. METHODS: Multicentre UK study undertaken 1 March 2020-30 June 2021 during the COVID-19 pandemic. Data were collected on CHD diagnoses, clinical presentation and outcomes. Multivariable logistic regression with multiple imputation was performed to explore predictors of death and hospitalisation. RESULTS: There were 405 reported cases (127 paediatric/278 adult). In children (age <16 years), there were 5 (3.9%) deaths. Adjusted ORs (AORs) for hospitalisation in children were significantly lower with each ascending year of age (OR 0.85, 95% CI 0.75 to 0.96 (p<0.01)). In adults, there were 24 (8.6%) deaths (19 with comorbidities) and 74 (26.6%) hospital admissions. AORs for death in adults were significantly increased with each year of age (OR 1.05, 95% CI 1.01 to 1.10 (p<0.01)) and with pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH; OR 5.99, 95% CI 1.34 to 26.91 (p=0.02)). AORs for hospitalisation in adults were significantly higher with each additional year of age (OR 1.03, 95% CI 1.00 to 1.05 (p=0.04)), additional comorbidities (OR 3.23, 95% CI 1.31 to 7.97 (p=0.01)) and genetic disease (OR 2.87, 95% CI 1.04 to 7.94 (p=0.04)). CONCLUSIONS: Children were at low risk of death and hospitalisation secondary to COVID-19 even with severe CHD, but hospital admission rates were higher in younger children, independent of comorbidity. In adults, higher likelihood of death was associated with increasing age and PAH, and of hospitalisation with age, comorbidities and genetic disease. An individualised approach, based on age and comorbidities, should be taken to COVID-19 management in patients with CHD.

The interplay between pressure, flow, and resistance in neonatal pulmonary hypertension.

Pulmonary hypertension, conventionally defined by absolute pulmonary artery pressure, is the result of a range of diagnoses that can result in clinical problems in neonatal practice. Causes include persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn, congenital heart disease, and left heart dysfunction, as well as the normally high pulmonary artery resistance in neonates. Elucidating the cause of pulmonary hypertension is vital to guide appropriate management. A first principles approach based on hemodynamic calculations provides a framework for the diagnostic work up and subsequent therapy. Central to this is the equation 'pressure = flow x resistance' and knowledge of factors contributing to flow and resistance and their impact on pulmonary artery pressure. While formal, accurate, calculation of each element is usually not required or deliverable in small infants, clinical and echocardiographic parameters, combined with an understanding of the interplay between pressure, flow, and resistance, significantly improves the assessment and management of neonatal pulmonary hemodynamics.

Friedreich's ataxia-associated childhood hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: a national cohort study.

OBJECTIVE: Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is an important predictor of long-term outcomes in Friedreich's ataxia (FA), but the clinical spectrum and survival in childhood is poorly described. This study aimed to describe the clinical characteristics of children with FA-HCM. DESIGN AND SETTING: Retrospective, longitudinal cohort study of children with FA-HCM from the UK. PATIENTS: 78 children (<18 years) with FA-HCM diagnosed over four decades. INTERVENTION: Anonymised retrospective demographic and clinical data were collected from baseline evaluation and follow-up. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The primary study end-point was all-cause mortality (sudden cardiac death, atrial arrhythmia-related death, heart failure-related death, non-cardiac death) or cardiac transplantation. RESULTS: The mean age at diagnosis of FA-HCM was 10.9 (±3.1) years. Diagnosis was within 1 year of cardiac referral in 34 (65.0%) patients, but preceded the diagnosis of FA in 4 (5.3%). At baseline, 65 (90.3%) had concentric left ventricular hypertrophy and 6 (12.5%) had systolic impairment. Over a median follow-up of 5.1 years (IQR 2.4-7.3), 8 (10.5%) had documented supraventricular arrhythmias and 8 (10.5%) died (atrial arrhythmia-related n=2; heart failure-related n=1; non-cardiac n=2; or unknown cause n=3), but there were no sudden cardiac deaths. Freedom from death or transplantation at 10 years was 80.8% (95% CI 62.5 to 90.8). CONCLUSIONS: This is the largest cohort of childhood FA-HCM reported to date and describes a high prevalence of atrial arrhythmias and impaired systolic function in childhood, suggesting early progression to end-stage disease. Overall mortality is similar to that reported in non-syndromic childhood HCM, but no patients died suddenly.

Clinical Features and Natural History of Preadolescent Nonsyndromic Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy.

BACKGROUND: Up to one-half of childhood sarcomeric hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) presents before the age of 12 years, but this patient group has not been systematically characterized. OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to describe the clinical presentation and natural history of patients presenting with nonsyndromic HCM before the age of 12 years. METHODS: Data from the International Paediatric Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy Consortium on 639 children diagnosed with HCM younger than 12 years were collected and compared with those from 568 children diagnosed between 12 and 16 years. RESULTS: At baseline, 339 patients (53.6%) had family histories of HCM, 132 (20.9%) had heart failure symptoms, and 250 (39.2%) were prescribed cardiac medications. The median maximal left ventricular wall thickness z-score was 8.7 (IQR: 5.3-14.4), and 145 patients (27.2%) had left ventricular outflow tract obstruction. Over a median follow-up period of 5.6 years (IQR: 2.3-10.0 years), 42 patients (6.6%) died, 21 (3.3%) underwent cardiac transplantation, and 69 (10.8%) had life-threatening arrhythmic events. Compared with those presenting after 12 years, a higher proportion of younger patients underwent myectomy (10.5% vs 7.2%; P = 0.045), but fewer received primary prevention implantable cardioverter-defibrillators (18.9% vs 30.1%; P = 0.041). The incidence of mortality or life-threatening arrhythmic events did not differ, but events occurred at a younger age. CONCLUSIONS: Early-onset childhood HCM is associated with a comparable symptom burden and cardiac phenotype as in patients presenting later in childhood. Long-term outcomes including mortality did not differ by age of presentation, but patients presenting at younger than 12 years experienced adverse events at younger ages.

Relationship Between Maximal Left Ventricular Wall Thickness and Sudden Cardiac Death in Childhood Onset Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy.

BACKGROUND: Maximal left ventricular wall thickness (MLVWT) is a risk factor for sudden cardiac death (SCD) in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM). In adults, the severity of left ventricular hypertrophy has a nonlinear relationship with SCD, but it is not known whether the same complex relationship is seen in childhood. The aim of this study was to describe the relationship between left ventricular hypertrophy and SCD risk in a large international pediatric HCM cohort. METHODS: The study cohort comprised 1075 children (mean age, 10.2 years [±4.4]) diagnosed with HCM (1-16 years) from the International Paediatric Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy Consortium. Anonymized, noninvasive clinical data were collected from baseline evaluation and follow-up, and 5-year estimated SCD risk was calculated (HCM Risk-Kids). RESULTS: MLVWT Z score was <10 in 598 (58.1%), ≥10 to <20 in 334 (31.1%), and ≥20 in 143 (13.3%). Higher MLVWT Z scores were associated with heart failure symptoms, unexplained syncope, left ventricular outflow tract obstruction, left atrial dilatation, and nonsustained ventricular tachycardia. One hundred twenty-two patients (71.3%) with MLVWT Z score ≥20 had coexisting risk factors for SCD. Over a median follow-up of 4.9 years (interquartile range, 2.3-9.3), 115 (10.7%) had an SCD event. Freedom from SCD event at 5 years for those with MLVWT Z scores <10, ≥10 to <20, and ≥20 was 95.6%, 87.4%, and 86.0, respectively. The estimated SCD risk at 5 years had a nonlinear, inverted U-shaped relationship with MLVWT Z score, peaking at Z score +23. The presence of coexisting risk factors had a summative effect on risk. CONCLUSIONS: In children with HCM, an inverted U-shaped relationship exists between left ventricular hypertrophy and estimated SCD risk. The presence of additional risk factors has a summative effect on risk. While MLVWT is important for risk stratification, it should not be used either as a binary variable or in isolation to guide implantable cardioverter defibrillator implantation decisions in children with HCM.

The role of the electrocardiographic phenotype in risk stratification for sudden cardiac death in childhood hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.

AIMS: The 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG) is routinely performed in children with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM). An ECG risk score has been suggested as a useful tool for risk stratification, but this has not been independently validated. This aim of this study was to describe the ECG phenotype of childhood HCM in a large, international, multi-centre cohort and investigate its role in risk prediction for arrhythmic events. METHODS AND RESULTS: Data from 356 childhood HCM patients with a mean age of 10.1 years (±4.5) were collected from a retrospective, multi-centre international cohort. Three hundred and forty-seven (97.5%) patients had ECG abnormalities at baseline, most commonly repolarization abnormalities (n = 277, 77.8%); left ventricular hypertrophy (n = 240, 67.7%); abnormal QRS axis (n = 126, 35.4%); or QT prolongation (n = 131, 36.8%). Over a median follow-up of 3.9 years (interquartile range 2.0-7.7), 25 (7%) had an arrhythmic event, with an overall annual event rate of 1.38 (95% CI 0.93-2.04). No ECG variables were associated with 5-year arrhythmic event on univariable or multivariable analysis. The ECG risk score threshold of >5 had modest discriminatory ability [C-index 0.60 (95% CI 0.484-0.715)], with corresponding negative and positive predictive values of 96.7% and 6.7. CONCLUSION: In a large, international, multi-centre cohort of childhood HCM, ECG abnormalities were common and varied. No ECG characteristic, either in isolation or combined in the previously described ECG risk score, was associated with 5-year sudden cardiac death risk. This suggests that the role of baseline ECG phenotype in improving risk stratification in childhood HCM is limited.

Erratum to "COVID-19 in children: what did we learn from the first waveË® [Paediatr Child Health 30 (2020) 438-443/1496].

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1016/j.paed.2020.09.005.].

Remodeling of the Purkinje Network in Congestive Heart Failure in the Rabbit.

BACKGROUND: Purkinje fibers (PFs) control timing of ventricular conduction and play a key role in arrhythmogenesis in heart failure (HF) patients. We investigated the effects of HF on PFs. METHODS: Echocardiography, electrocardiography, micro-computed tomography, quantitative polymerase chain reaction, immunohistochemistry, volume electron microscopy, and sharp microelectrode electrophysiology were used. RESULTS: Congestive HF was induced in rabbits by left ventricular volume- and pressure-overload producing left ventricular hypertrophy, diminished fractional shortening and ejection fraction, and increased left ventricular dimensions. HF baseline QRS and corrected QT interval were prolonged by 17% and 21% (mean±SEMs: 303±6 ms HF, 249±11 ms control; n=8/7; P=0.0002), suggesting PF dysfunction and impaired ventricular repolarization. Micro-computed tomography imaging showed increased free-running left PF network volume and length in HF. mRNA levels for 40 ion channels, Ca2+-handling proteins, connexins, and proinflammatory and fibrosis markers were assessed: 50% and 35% were dysregulated in left and right PFs respectively, whereas only 12.5% and 7.5% changed in left and right ventricular muscle. Funny channels, Ca2+-channels, and K+-channels were significantly reduced in left PFs. Microelectrode recordings from left PFs revealed more negative resting membrane potential, reduced action potential upstroke velocity, prolonged duration (action potential duration at 90% repolarization: 378±24 ms HF, 249±5 ms control; n=23/38; P<0.0001), and arrhythmic events in HF. Similar electrical remodeling was seen at the left PF-ventricular junction. In the failing left ventricle, upstroke velocity and amplitude were increased, but action potential duration at 90% repolarization was unaffected. CONCLUSIONS: Severe volume- followed by pressure-overload causes rapidly progressing HF with extensive remodeling of PFs. The PF network is central to both arrhythmogenesis and contractile dysfunction and the pathological remodeling may increase the risk of fatal arrhythmias in HF patients.

Clinical presentation and long-term outcomes of infantile hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: a European multicentre study.

AIMS: Children presenting with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) in infancy are reported to have a poor prognosis, but this heterogeneous group has not been systematically characterized. This study aimed to describe the aetiology, phenotype, and outcomes of infantile HCM in a well-characterized multicentre European cohort. METHODS AND RESULTS: Of 301 children diagnosed with infantile HCM between 1987 and 2019 presenting to 17 European centres [male n = 187 (62.1%)], underlying aetiology was non-syndromic (n = 138, 45.6%), RASopathy (n = 101, 33.6%), or inborn error of metabolism (IEM) (n = 49, 16.3%). The most common reasons for presentation were symptoms (n = 77, 29.3%), which were more prevalent in those with syndromic disease (n = 62, 61.4%, P < 0.001), and an isolated murmur (n = 75, 28.5%). One hundred and sixty-one (53.5%) had one or more co-morbidities. Genetic testing was performed in 163 (54.2%) patients, with a disease-causing variant identified in 115 (70.6%). Over median follow-up of 4.1 years, 50 (16.6%) underwent one or more surgical interventions; 15 (5.0%) had an arrhythmic event (6 in the first year of life); and 48 (15.9%) died, with an overall 5 year survival of 85%. Predictors of all-cause mortality were an underlying diagnosis of IEM [hazard ratio (HR) 4.4, P = 0.070], cardiac symptoms (HR 3.2, P = 0.005), and impaired left ventricular systolic function (HR 3.0, P = 0.028). CONCLUSIONS: This large, multicentre study of infantile HCM describes a complex cohort of patients with a diverse phenotypic spectrum and clinical course. Although overall outcomes were poor, this was largely related to underlying aetiology emphasizing the importance of comprehensive aetiological investigations, including genetic testing, in infantile HCM.

COVID-19 in children: what did we learn from the first wave?

A pandemic caused by the novel coronavirus, severe acute respiratory syndrome - coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has caused high rates of mortality, predominantly in adults. Children are significantly less affected by SARS-CoV-2 with far lower rates of recorded infections in children compared to adults, milder symptoms in the majority of children and very low mortality rates. A suspected late manifestation of the disease, paediatric inflammatory multisystem syndrome - temporally associated with SARS-CoV-2 (PIMS-TS), has been seen in small numbers of children and has a more severe disease course than acute SARS-CoV-2. The pandemic has meant that children around the world have been kept off school, isolated from their extended family and friends and asked to stay inside. The UK has been declared as being in an economic recession and unemployment rates are increasing. These indirect effects of SARS-CoV-2 are likely to have a significant impact on many children for years to come. Consolidating the knowledge that has accumulated during the first wave of this pandemic is essential for recognising the clinical signs, symptoms and effective treatment strategies for children; identifying children who may be at increased risk of severe SARS-CoV-2 infection; planning the safe delivery of healthcare and non-health related services that are important for childrens' wellbeing; and engaging in, and developing, research to address the things that are not yet known. This article summarises the evidence that has emerged from the early phase of the pandemic and offers an overview for those looking after children or planning services.

Development of a Novel Risk Prediction Model for Sudden Cardiac Death in Childhood Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy (HCM Risk-Kids).

Importance: Sudden cardiac death (SCD) is the most common mode of death in childhood hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM), but there is no validated algorithm to identify those at highest risk. Objective: To develop and validate an SCD risk prediction model that provides individualized risk estimates. Design, Setting, and Participants: A prognostic model was developed from a retrospective, multicenter, longitudinal cohort study of 1024 consecutively evaluated patients aged 16 years or younger with HCM. The study was conducted from January 1, 1970, to December 31, 2017. Exposures: The model was developed using preselected predictor variables (unexplained syncope, maximal left-ventricular wall thickness, left atrial diameter, left-ventricular outflow tract gradient, and nonsustained ventricular tachycardia) identified from the literature and internally validated using bootstrapping. Main Outcomes and Measures: A composite outcome of SCD or an equivalent event (aborted cardiac arrest, appropriate implantable cardioverter defibrillator therapy, or sustained ventricular tachycardia associated with hemodynamic compromise). Results: Of the 1024 patients included in the study, 699 were boys (68.3%); mean (interquartile range [IQR]) age was 11 (7-14) years. Over a median follow-up of 5.3 years (IQR, 2.6-8.3; total patient years, 5984), 89 patients (8.7%) died suddenly or had an equivalent event (annual event rate, 1.49; 95% CI, 1.15-1.92). The pediatric model was developed using preselected variables to predict the risk of SCD. The model's ability to predict risk at 5 years was validated; the C statistic was 0.69 (95% CI, 0.66-0.72), and the calibration slope was 0.98 (95% CI, 0.59-1.38). For every 10 implantable cardioverter defibrillators implanted in patients with 6% or more of a 5-year SCD risk, 1 patient may potentially be saved from SCD at 5 years. Conclusions and Relevance: This new, validated risk stratification model for SCD in childhood HCM may provide individualized estimates of risk at 5 years using readily obtained clinical risk factors. External validation studies are required to demonstrate the accuracy of this model's predictions in diverse patient populations.

Effect of Prenatal Laterality Disturbance and Its Accompanying Anomalies on Survival.

In this retrospective, observational study of fetuses diagnosed with a laterality disturbance we describe the findings and outcome of fetuses diagnosed between 1980 and 2017 at a tertiary fetal-pediatric cardiology unit. In addition we sought to identify features which impact on outcome. Left atrial isomerism (LAI) was diagnosed in 177 babies and right atrial isomerism (RAI) in 100. Major structural heart disease was present in all cases of RAI and 91% with LAI. Complete heart block (CHB) was present in 40% of LAI. For surviving live-born infants a biventricular circulation was feasible in 3% with RAI and 43% with LAI. The median survival for live-borns with LAI was 13 months (range 0 to 272 months) and for RAI 19 months (range 0.3 to 292 months). The median postnatal survival with CHB was 0.2 months (range 0 to 228 months) compared to 44 months with sinus rhythm (interquartile range 0 to 272 months; p <0.0001). The 5-year survival was 1980 to 1989, RAI 0%, LAI 0%; 1990 to 1999, RAI 62%, LAI 54%; 2000 to 2009, RAI 59%, LAI 53%; 2010 to 2017, RAI 67%, LAI 75% by era. The rate of intrauterine death remained. Risk factors for death/transplantation for RAI were total anomalous pulmonary venous drainage, left heart obstruction (hazard ratios 2.7, p = 0.048; 5.8, p = 0.03) and for LAI: CHB, anomalous pulmonary venous drainage and right heart obstruction (hazard ratios 11.5, 6.2, 3.8, respectively (p = 0.008, p = 0.003, p <0.001)). In conclusion, laterality disturbances represent a complex form of congenital heart disease and although survival is improved, it remains poor especially in the presence of anomalous pulmonary venous drainage, stenotic and/or atretic valves, and CHB.

Morphological Substrates for Atrial Arrhythmogenesis in a Heart With Atrioventricular Septal Defect.

Due to advances in corrective surgery, congenital heart disease has an ever growing patient population. Atrial arrhythmias are frequently observed pre- and post-surgical correction. Pharmaceutical antiarrhythmic therapy is not always effective, therefore many symptomatic patients undergo catheter ablation therapy. In patients with atrioventricular septal defects (AVSD), ablation therapy itself has mixed success; arrhythmogenic recurrences are common, and because of the anatomical displacement of the atrioventricular node, 3-degree heart block post-ablation is a real concern. In order to develop optimal and safe ablation strategies, the field of congenital cardiac electrophysiology must combine knowledge from clinical electrophysiology with a thorough understanding of the anatomical substrates for arrhythmias. Using image-based analysis and multi-cellular mathematical modeling of electrical activation, we show how the anatomical alterations characteristic of an AVSD serve as arrhythmogenic substrates. Using ex-vivo contrast enhanced micro-computed tomography we imaged post-mortem the heart of a 5 month old male with AVSD at an isometric spatial resolution of 38 µm. Morphological analysis revealed the 3D disposition of the cardiac conduction system for the first time in an intact heart with this human congenital malformation. We observed displacement of the compact atrioventricular node inferiorly to the ostium of the coronary sinus. Myocyte orientation analysis revealed that the normal arrangement of the major atrial muscle bundles was preserved but was modified in the septal region. Models of electrical activation suggest the disposition of the myocytes within the atrial muscle bundles associated with the "fast pathway," together with the displaced atrioventricular node, serve as potential substrates for re-entry and possibly atrial fibrillation. This study used archived human hearts, showing them to be a valuable resource for the mathematical modeling community, and opening new possibilities for the investigations of arrhythmogenesis and ablation strategies in the congenitally malformed heart.

Congestive Heart Failure Leads to Prolongation of the PR Interval and Atrioventricular Junction Enlargement and Ion Channel Remodelling in the Rabbit.

Heart failure is a major killer worldwide. Atrioventricular conduction block is common in heart failure; it is associated with worse outcomes and can lead to syncope and bradycardic death. We examine the effect of heart failure on anatomical and ion channel remodelling in the rabbit atrioventricular junction (AVJ). Heart failure was induced in New Zealand rabbits by disruption of the aortic valve and banding of the abdominal aorta resulting in volume and pressure overload. Laser micro-dissection and real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) were employed to investigate the effects of heart failure on ion channel remodelling in four regions of the rabbit AVJ and in septal tissues. Investigation of the AVJ anatomy was performed using micro-computed tomography (micro-CT). Heart failure animals developed first degree heart block. Heart failure caused ventricular myocardial volume increase with a 35% elongation of the AVJ. There was downregulation of HCN1 and Cx43 mRNA transcripts across all regions and downregulation of Cav1.3 in the transitional tissue. Cx40 mRNA was significantly downregulated in the atrial septum and AVJ tissues but not in the ventricular septum. mRNA abundance for ANP, CLCN2 and Navß1 was increased with heart failure; Nav1.1 was increased in the inferior nodal extension/compact node area. Heart failure in the rabbit leads to prolongation of the PR interval and this is accompanied by downregulation of HCN1, Cav1.3, Cx40 and Cx43 mRNAs and anatomical enlargement of the entire heart and AVJ.

Congestive heart failure: experimental model.

INTRODUCTION: Surgically induced, combined volume and pressure overload has been used in rabbits to create a simplified and reproducible model of acute left ventricular (LV) failure. MATERIALS AND METHODS: New Zealand white male rabbits (n = 24, mean weight 3.1 ± 0.2 kg) were randomly assigned to either the Control group (n = 10) or to the Heart Failure group (HF, n = 14). Animals in the Control group underwent "sham" procedures. Animals in the HF group underwent procedures to induce LV volume overload by inducing severe aortic valve regurgitation with aortic cusp disruption and pressure overload using an occlusive silver clip positioned around the pre-renal abdominal aorta. RESULTS: Following Procedure-1 (volume overload) echocardiography confirmed severe aortic regurgitation in all animals in the HF group, with increased mean pulse pressure difference from 18 ± 3 to 38 ± 3 mmHg (P < 0.0001). After Procedure-2 (pressure overload) all animals in the HF group showed clinical and echocardiographic signs of constriction of the abdominal aorta and echocardiography confirmed progressively declining LV function. At the end of the protocol there was a significant increase of the heart/body weight ratio in the HF group vs. Control group (4.6 ± 0.2 vs. 2.9 ± 0.1 g/kg, P < 0.05), and echocardiography showed in HF group significant increase of the LV end-diastolic diameter (2.15 ± 0.09 vs. 1.49 ± 0.03 cm, P < 0.001) and reduction of the LV shortening fraction (26.3 ± 3.8 vs. 41.3 ± 1.6%, P < 0.001). CONCLUSION: This experimental model: (a) consistently produces LV hypertrophy/dilatation and subsequent congestive heart failure, (b) provides new data on the time course of LV dilatation, hypertrophy and failure, (c) allows study of the progress and evolution of LV systolic and diastolic dysfunction in the presence of induced LV failure, (d) is suitable to study intervention or pharmacological administration to reduce the negative effects of acute LV failure.